| Aérospatiale | |
|
HW100 - 45000
UAW55 - 105000 RRW100 - 175000 PKRR - 7500 |
Aérospatiale Aérospatiale Type - State-owned corporation Industry - Aerospace and defence Predecessor - Sud Aviation / Nord Aviation / SEREB Founded - 1970 Defunct - 10 July 2000 Fate - Merged into EADS Successor - EADS Headquarters - Paris, France Products - See list Aérospatiale (French pronunciation: [aeʁɔspasjal]), sometimes styled Aerospatiale, was a French state-owned aerospace manufacturer that built both civilian and military aircraft, rockets and satellites. It was originally known as Société nationale industrielle aérospatiale (SNIAS). Its head office was in the 16th arrondissement of Paris. The name was changed to Aérospatiale during 1970. During the 1990s, Aérospatiale underwent several significant restructures and mergers. Its helicopter division was, along with Germany's DaimlerBenz Aerospace AG (DASA), combined to form the Eurocopter Group. In 1999, the majority of Aérospatiale, except for its satellite activities, merged with French conglomerate Matra's defense wing, Matra Haute Technologie, to form Aérospatiale-Matra. That same year, the satellite manufacturing division merged with Alcatel to become Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space. In 2001, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with Spanish aviation company Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) and German defense firm DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA) to form the multinational European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS). Currently, the majority of the former assets of the company are part of the multinational Airbus consortium. History Formation During 1970, Aérospatiale was created under the name SNIAS as a result of the merger of several French state-owned companies - Sud Aviation, Nord Aviation and Société d'étude et de réalisation d'engins balistiques (SEREB). The newly formed entity was the largest aerospace company in France. From the onset, the French government owned a controlling stake in Aérospatiale; at one stage, a 97 per cent ownership of the company was held by the government. In 1971, Aérospatiale was managed by the French industrialist Henri Ziegler; that same year, the firm's North American marketing and sales arm, which had previously operated under the trading name of the French Aerospace Corporation, was officially rebranded as the European Aerospace Corporation, which was intended to better reflect Aérospatiale's increasing focus on collaborative efforts with its European partners. Major activities Many of Aérospatiale's initial programmes were holdovers from its predecessors, particularly those of Sud Aviation. Perhaps the most high-profile of these programmes was Concorde, a joint French-British attempt to develop and market a supersonic commercial airliner. Initial work on this project had begun at Sud Aviation and the Bristol Aeroplane Company, its British counterpart. The engines for Concorde were also developed as a joint Anglo-French effort between SNECMA and Bristol Siddeley. However, the programme was highly politicised and encountered considerable cost overruns and delays. Ultimately, it was negatively affected equally by bad political decisions and an oil crisis in the 1970s; thus, only two airlines purchased Concorde. Aérospatiale's senior management were keen to avoid the mistakes of the Concorde program. Their next major effort was would be an international consortium between British Aerospace and West German's aircraft company Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm (MBB), called Airbus Industries. This was established with the purpose of building a twin-engined widebody airliner, known as the A300. While at first, it was difficult to achieve sales and the outlook for the A300 seemed negative. However, Aérospatiale continued to manufacture the airliner without orders, as it could not reasonably cut back production as French law required that laid-off employees were to receive 90 percent of their pay for a year as well as to retain their health benefits throughout. Sales of the A300 picked up and the type eventually became a major commercial success, subsequently driving both the American Lockheed L-1011 and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 from the market due to its cheaper operating model. On the back of this success, further airliners would be produced under the Airbus brand and the company would become a world leader in the field of large commercial aircraft during the 1990s. Aérospatiale played a leading role in the development of the European space sector. During the 1960s, Sud Aviation had been involved in a multinational European programme to produce the Europa space launch vehicle, this being a three-stage rocket with the separate stages being manufactured in Britain, France, and Germany respectively. However, all of the flight tests conducted were failures; the programme's misfortune has been attributed to there being no central authority responsible for operations. This came was a result of the issue of workshare becoming highly politicized. When Aérospatiale stepped in, during 1973, it was determined not to repeat the mistakes of Europa. The company proposed to build a new heavy launch vehicle, which would later be called the Ariane, to take the place of Europa. While other European nations were invited to participate, it would be French officials who would hold primary responsibility, and thus, make the most important decisions. This approach was agreed upon with several other nations; during 1979. Ariane was an immediate success, allowing the French to gain a strong advantage over the United States, which had centred its efforts on the Space Shuttle. However, the Challenger disaster during 1986 showed that it was too complex for routine use as a satellite launch platform. Aérospatiale went on to develop more capable versions of the Ariane, which took much of the business of space launches away from the Americans during the 1990s. Privatisation and mergers In 1992, German defense company DaimlerBenz Aerospace AG (DASA) and Aérospatiale combined their respective helicopter divisions together to form the Eurocopter Group; ownership of this new entity was shared between the two parent companies. During the late 1990s, French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin's Plural Left government initiated a policy towards the privatization of Aérospatiale. In 1999, the majority of Aérospatiale, except for the satellites activities, merged with French conglomerate Matra's defense wing, Matra Haute Technologie, to form Aérospatiale-Matra. During 2001, Aérospatiale-Matra's missile division underwent a further merger with Anglo-French outfit Matra BAe Dynamics and the missile division of Alenia Marconi Systems to form the multinational MBDA entity. On 10 July 2000, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with Spanish aviation company Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) and German defense firm DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA) to form the multinational European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS). EADS would later rebrand itself as Airbus Military, taking the name of its commercial aircraft division, its primary business. Products Fixed-wing aircraft CM.170 Magister CM.175 Zephyr Concorde (with British Aircraft Corporation) N.262 N.500 SE 210 Caravelle SN 601 Corvette TB 30 Epsilon Ludion Helicopters AS 332 Super Puma AS 350 Ecureuil/AStar AS 355 Ecureuil 2/TwinStar AS 532 Cougar AS 550 Fennec AS 565 Panther SA 313/SA 318 Alouette II SA 315B Lama SA 316/SA 319 Alouette III SA 321 Super Frelon SA 330 Puma SA 341/SA 342 Gazelle SA 360 Dauphin SA 365/AS365 Dauphin 2 HH-65 Dolphin Unmanned aerial vehicles C.22 Missiles AS 15 TT AS-20 AS-30 M1 (missile) M20 (missile) M45 (missile) S1 (missile) S2 (missile) S3 (missile) SS.11 SS.12/AS.12 Air-Sol Moyenne Portée ENTAC Exocet Hadès (missile) HOT (missile) MILAN Pluton (missile) Roland (missile) Space-related products AMC-5 (satellite) Arabsat (satellite) Arabsat-1A Arabsat-1B Ariane rocket Ariane 1 Ariane 2 Ariane 3 Ariane 4 Ariane 5 Astra 5A (satellite) Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator Diamant (rocket) Hermes spaceplane (not built) Huygens (spacecraft) Infrared Space Observatory INSAT-1C (satellite) INSAT-2DT (satellite) Meteosat (satellite) Nahuel 1A (satellite) Proteus (satellite) Spacebus (satellite) Symphonie (satellite) (satellite) Tele-X (satellite) Turksat (satellite) Turksat 1A Turksat 1B Turksat 1C Topaze (sounding rocket) TV-SAT 1 (satellite) List of CEOs 1970-1973 : Henri Ziegler 1973-1975 : Charles Cristofini 1975-1983 : général Jacques Mitterrand, the brother of François Mitterrand Henri Martre (1983 - 1992) Louis Gallois (1992 - 1996) Aérospatiale Corvette SN 601 Corvette Aérospatiale Corvette Role - Business jet/Regional jet airliner Manufacturer - Aérospatiale First flight - 16 July 1970 Produced - 1974-1977 Number built - 40 The Aérospatiale SN 601 Corvette is a French business jet of the early 1970s developed and manufactured by aerospace manufacturer Aérospatiale. Sales of the type were disappointing, leading to only 40 Corvettes being constructed, including the prototypes, prior to production being terminated. In response to an open request by the French government for a compact twin-turbofan engine-equipped liaison/trainer aircraft, aircraft manufacturers Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation decided to embark upon development of a new business jet that could also fulfil the government demand as well. The joint venture's design, initially designated as the SN 600 Diplomate, was first publicly displayed at the 1968 Hanover ILA Air Show. On 16 July 1970, the prototype SN 600 performed the type's maiden flight; on 23 March 1971, this prototype was lost during a test flight. A pair of improved SN 601 prototypes were then constructed; on 20 December 1972, the first of these prototypes conducted its first flight. In addition to its use as a VIP aircraft, a number of Corvettes were procured and operated by regional airlines, such as Air Alsace, Air Alpes, Air Champagne, TAT, and Sterling Airways. Airbus Industrie also operated a small fleet of Corvettes for internal transportation of staff between its key sites across Europe. During late 1976, Aerospatiale, as a consequence of a low number of orders having been received during three years of production, decided to terminate production of the SN 601 Corvette. While an expanded model, known as the Corvette 200, had been actively studied, development was abandoned following the end of manufacture. Design and development Origins During the 1950s and 1960s, the French government, which had taken a significant interest in the re-establishment and growth of its national aviation industries in the aftermath of the Second World War, developed a detailed request for a combined liaison/trainer aircraft, to be equipped with twin-turbofan engines. Among those companies that took interest in the government request were aircraft manufacturers Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation. Design work on such an aircraft commenced during the second half of the 1960s as a joint venture between Sud and Nord. In January 1968, Sud and Nord decided to proceed with the programme following an announcement by French engine company SNECMA announced that it was developing a suitable engine, the M49 Larzac. It was a conventional design for its class, a low-wing monoplane powered by a pair of turbofan engines, which were mounted upon nacelles attached to the rear fuselage. The joint venture's design, designated as the SN 600, was first revealed to the public as a scale model, described as the SN 600 Diplomate, which was displayed at the 1968 Hanover ILA Air Show. The reveal roughly aligned with that of a reasonably comparable aircraft, the Cessna Citation 500. While frequently contrasted with the Citation 500, the SN 600 is a larger aircraft capable of carrying more passengers, being equipped with swept wings, and was envisioned to be cheaper during its launch year. The joint venture's own forecasts for the SN 600 included, beyond an anticipated order from the French military services for 60 aircraft, a minimum of 400 of the type which were to be sold upon the global market of an anticipated demand for such a class of aircraft between 1974 and 1980 of 2,800 business jets. From a marketing perspective, the joint venture held ambitions to sell the type worldwide, particularly the North American market in which there was already an established demand for business jets; accordingly, elements of the in-development aircraft were refined towards appealing to American customers. A high-profile competitor to the SN 600 was in fact another French-built business jet, the Dassault Falcon 20, that was developed by rival manufacturer Dassault Aviation. According to aerospace publication Flying Magazine, the competing Falcon 20 appeared to have gained the upper hand in the North American market over the joint venture by 1973, having gained the backing of American airliner Pan American World Airways to act as a distributor for the type. Years of discussions were held with the aim of securing a North American distributor to market the SN 600. At one point, a distributor arrangement was formed with conglomerate Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV) and subsequently with manufacturer Piper Aircraft. During 1970, Sud and Nord merged to form Aerospatiale, who continued work on the SN 600. The company was keen to promote the advantages of the design, observing the SN 600 to offer well below average operating costs, being better within its size range than any other turbojet-powered competitor along with some turboprop-powered designs as well. Furthermore, it was promoted as being a spacious and flexible aircraft that satisfied the needs of commuter airlines. On 16 July 1970, the prototype SN 600, powered by a pair of Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D engines installed, performed its maiden flight. However, the intended Larzac engine was never fitted to the prototype, having still been in development for over a year after the loss of the prototype, which had crashed during a test flight intended to explore the aircraft's stall characteristics on 23 March 1971. The loss of the prototype, while quickly resolved from a technical perspective, has been claimed to have badly shaken the faith of prospective customers in the type. Redesign and disorder Following the loss of the SN 600, a pair of improved SN 601 prototypes were constructed, which were shortly thereafter renamed as the Corvette 100. The SN 601 featured a stretched fuselage, 3 ft 5½ in (1.05 m) longer than the 41 ft 11½ (12.79 m) in counterpart used on the earlier SN 600. On 20 December 1972, the first SN 601 flew for the first time. Early flight tests found that the type still suffered from unfavourable stall characteristics. By this point, the Corvette programme was three years behind the rival Citation 500 business jet, despite the two aircraft being originally revealed within months of one another. The French government had become sceptical of the programme's slow progress, to the point where, during 1974, the abandonment of work on the Corvette was seriously considered. During 1973, U.S. Corvette Incorporated, a dedicated North American-based distributor, was established in Atlanta, Georgia to act as a sales and aircraft completion center for the region. At this point, Aérospatiale was still circulating optimistic sales projects for the type, anticipating the delivery of 10 Corvettes to the North American market during 1974, along with 25 aircraft in 1975 and 35 more during 1976; this was despite being nearly a third more expensive than American rivals such as the Citation 500 and Learjet 24D. Additionally, deliveries were scheduled to commence during March 1974, even as it was increasingly clear from flight tests that modifications were required. Less than a year later, the U.S. Corvette Inc. initiative was abandoned prior to any deliveries; it was replaced by an exclusive distributor arrangement with Oklahoma-based company Air Center Inc. Shortly thereafter, a new management team arrived at Aérospatiale in response to cost overruns on both the Corvette and Concorde programmes. In May 1974, an airworthiness certificate for the Corvette was awarded by French authorities. However, deliveries were delayed until early 1974, partially as a result of industrial action at engine manufacturer United Aircraft of Canada. In response to the lack of deliveries, Air Center Inc. sued Aérospatiale for non-performance, having only received a single non-certified demonstrator aircraft out of a contracted fleet of 70 production Corvettes which had been due to be delivered by May 1974. Ultimately, only six new Corvettes would be dispatched to Oklahoma, and there would be no sales of the type during or after 1975; in March 1976, the U.S. marketing programme was terminated by Aérospatiale. During late 1976, Aérospatiale decided to cease manufacture of the Corvette as a consequence of the company having only received orders for 27 production models during the two-and-a-half years following the aircraft's receipt of type certification against hopes that it would be able to sell six Corvettes per month. A report produced by the French government's Court of Audit found that losses accumulated by the Corvette programme amounted to roughly $190 million, or 66 per cent of Aerospatiale's fiscal deficits from 1972 to 1975. The same report noted that the company's management had lacked real appreciation of the risks involved in such a hotly competed niche role from existing British, American and French (the latter being in the form of Dassault Aviation's Falcon 20), and stated that: "It is certain that the Corvette programme is, and will remain, a major commercial and financial disaster". Aérospatiale had conducted a design study into a prospective improved version of the aircraft, which was referred to as the Corvette 200. If developed as intended, this model would to have featured a further fuselage stretch which would have allowed it to accommodate up to 18 seats; however, production of the Corvette had been terminated prior to any having been constructed. Operational history A number of Corvettes were sold and operated by several French regional airlines, such as Air Alsace, Air Alpes, Air Champagne and TAT. Sterling Airways of Denmark was another airliner that also operated the type. One Corvette was used as a VIP transport by the Congolese Air Force. By January 2009, a small number of Corvettes remained active in Europe and Africa, including one (F-GPLA cn 28) in France that had been fitted out for aerial photography missions. This Corvette was later used during high speed tests of the TGV high speed train, serving as a chase aircraft. Airbus Industrie operated a fleet of five Corvettes for internal transportation purposes between 1981 and 2009. Variants SN 600 The first Corvette prototype, powered by two 2,200 lbf (9.8 kN) thrust Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D-1 turbofan engines. SN 601 Production version with longer fuselage than SN 600 and 2,500 lb (11.1 kN) thrust JT15D-4 engines. 39 built, including two prototypes. Operators Aerospatiale SN-601 Corvette 1) Benin Air Benin Force Aerienne Populaire de Benin 2) Republic of the Congo Aero Service 3) Denmark Aalborg Airtaxi North Flying AS Sterling Airways Air Marine 4) Spain Drenair Gestair Executive Jet Teire S.A. Mayoral Aeropublic 5) France Aero Vision Air Alpes Air Alsace Airbus Industrie Continentale Air Service Eurocopter Gallic Aviation Musee de l'Air et de l'Espace TAT European Airlines TAT Transport Aerien Transregional Uni-Air 6) Mali Republic of Mali Air Force 7) United States Air National Aircraft Sales & Service Inc. Midwest Air Charter (Airborne Express) 8) Netherlands Jetstar Holland 9) Libya Libyan Air Ambulance 10) Gabon Air Inter Gabon 11) Madagascar Aeromarine 12) Sweden Baltic Aviation Inc. Accidents Including the prototype SN 600, a total of eight Corvettes are recorded as having been written-off in crashes. The worst loss of life in a Corvette crash was on 3 September 1979, when an SN 601 of Sterling Airways crashed in the Mediterranean Sea off Nice following a double engine failure. All ten occupants were killed. Specifications (SN 601) Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976-77 General characteristics Crew: 1-2 Capacity: 6 to 14 passengers, depending on configuration Length: 13.83 m (45 ft 4 in) Wingspan: 12.87 m (42 ft 3 in) Height: 4.23 m (13 ft 11 in) Wing area: 22.00 m2 (236.8 sq ft) Aspect ratio: 7.45:1 Empty weight: 3,510 kg (7,738 lb) Max takeoff weight: 6,600 kg (14,551 lb) Fuel capacity: 1,660 L (440 US gal; 370 imp gal) normal, additional 700 L (180 US gal; 150 imp gal) in optional tip tanks Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D-4 turbofans, 11 kN (2,500 lbf) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 760 km/h (470 mph, 410 kn) at 9,000 m (30,000 ft) (max cruise) Cruise speed: 566 km/h (352 mph, 306 kn) (econ. cruise) Stall speed: 168 km/h (104 mph, 91 kn) (wheels and flaps down) Range: 2,555 km (1,588 mi, 1,380 nmi) (econ cruise power, with tip tanks, 45 min reserves) Service ceiling: 12,500 m (41,000 ft) Rate of climb: 14 m/s (2,700 ft/min) Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Cessna Citation II Dassault Falcon 10 HFB 320 Hansa Jet Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma (Aérospatiale Puma) SA 330 Puma Role - Utility helicopter National origin - France Manufacturer - Sud Aviation / Aérospatiale First flight - 15 April 1965 Introduction - 1968 Status - In service Primary users - French Army / Royal Air Force / Romanian Air Force / Pakistan Army Produced - 1968-1987 Number built - 697 Variants - IAR 330 / Atlas Oryx Developed into - Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma / Eurocopter AS532 Cougar / Denel Rooivalk The Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma is a four-bladed, twin-engined medium transport/utility helicopter that was designed and originally produced by the French aerospace manufacturer Sud Aviation. It is capable of carrying up to 20 passengers as well as a variety of cargoes, either internally or externally; numerous armaments have also been outfitted to some helicopters. The Puma was originally developed as an all-new design during the mid 1960s in response to a French Army requirement for a medium-sized all-weather helicopter. On 15 April 1965, the first prototype Puma made its maiden flight; the first production helicopter flew during September 1968. Deliveries to the French Army commenced in early 1969; the type quickly proved itself to be a commercial success. Production of the Puma continued into the 1980s under Sub Aviation's successor company Aérospatiale. It was also license-produced in Romania as the IAR 330; two unlicensed derivatives, the Denel Rooivalk attack helicopter and Atlas Oryx utility helicopter, were built in South Africa. Several advanced derivatives have been developed, such as the AS332 Super Puma and AS532 Cougar, and have been manufactured by Eurocopter and its successor company Airbus Helicopters since the early 1990s. These descendants of the Puma remain in production in the 21st century. The Puma has seen combat in a range of theatres by a number of different operators; significant operations include the Gulf War, the South African Border War, the Portuguese Colonial War, the Yugoslav Wars, the Lebanese Civil War, the Iraq War, and the Falklands War. Numerous operators have chosen to modernise their fleets, often adding more capabilities and new features, such as glass cockpits, Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation, and various self-defense measures. The type also saw popular use in the civilian field and has been operated by a number of civil operators. One of the largest civil operators of the Puma was Bristow Helicopters, which regularly used it for off shore operations over the North Sea. Development The SA 330 Puma was originally developed by Sud Aviation to meet a requirement of the French Army for a medium-sized all-weather helicopter capable of carrying up to 20 soldiers as well as various cargo-carrying duties. The choice was made to develop a completely new design for the helicopter, work began in 1963 with backing from the French government. The first of two Puma prototypes flew on 15 April 1965; six further pre-production models were also built, the last of which flew on 30 July 1968. The first production SA 330 Puma flew in September 1968, with deliveries to the French Army starting in early 1969. In 1967, the Puma was selected by the Royal Air Force (RAF), who were impressed by the Puma's performance. It was given the designation Puma HC Mk 1. A significant joint manufacturing agreement was signed between Aerospatiale and Westland Helicopters of the UK. The close collaboration between the French and British firms would lead to purchases of Aérospatiale Gazelle by the UK and the Westland Lynx by France. Under this agreement, Westland manufactured a range of components and performed the assembly of Pumas ordered by the RAF. The SA 330 was a success on the export market, numerous countries purchased military variants of the Puma to serve in their armed forces; the type was also popularly received in the civil market, finding common usage by operators for transport duties to off-shore oil platforms. Throughout most of the 1970s, the SA 330 Puma was the best selling transport helicopter being produced in Europe. By July 1978, over 50 Pumas had already been delivered to civil customers, and the worldwide fleet had accumulated in excess of 500,000 operational hours. Romania entered into an arrangement with Aerospatiale to produce the Puma under license as the IAR 330, manufacturing at least 163 of the type for the Romanian armed forces, civil operators, and several export customers of their own. Indonesia also undertook domestic manufacturing of the SA 330. South Africa, a keen user of the type, performed their own major modification and production program conducted by the government-owned Atlas Aircraft Corporation to upgrade their own Pumas, the resulting aircraft was named Oryx. In the 1990s, Denel would also develop an attack helicopter for the South African Air Force based on the Puma, known as the Denel Rooivalk. In 1974, Aerospatiale began development of improved Puma variants, aiming to produce a successor to the type; these efforts would cumulate in the AS332 Super Puma. The first prototype AS332 Super Puma took flight on 13 September 1978, featuring more powerful engines and a more aerodynamically-efficient extended fuselage; by 1980, production of the AS332 Super Puma had overtaken that of the originating SA 330 Puma. Production of the SA 330 Puma by Aérospatiale ceased in 1987, by which time a total of 697 had been sold; production in Romania would continue into the 21st Century. Design The SA 330 Puma is a twin-engine helicopter intended for personnel transport and logistic support duties. As a troop carrier, up to 16 soldiers can be seated on foldable seats; in a casualty evacuation configuration, the cabin can hold six litters and four additional personnel; the Puma can also perform cargo transport duties, using alternatively an external sling or the internal cabin, with a maximum weight of 2500 kg. Civilian Pumas feature a variety of passenger cabin layouts, including those intended for VIP services. In a search and rescue capacity, a hoist is commonly installed, often mounted on the starboard fuselage. A pair of roof-mounted Turbomeca Turmo turboshaft engines power the Puma's four-blade main rotor. The helicopter's rotors are driven at a speed of roughly 265 rpm via a five reduction stage transmission. The design of the transmission featured several unique and uncommon innovations for the time, such as single-part manufacturing of the rotor shaft and the anti-vibration measures integrated into the main gearbox and main rotor blades. The Puma also featured an automatic blade inspection system, which guarded against and alerted crews to fatigue cracking in the rotor blades. There are two hydraulic systems on board, these operate entirely independent of one another, one system powers only the aircraft's flight controls while the other serves the autopilot, undercarriage, rotor brake, and the flight controls. In flight, the Puma was designed to be capable of high speeds, exhibit great maneuverability, and have good hot-and-high performance; the engines have an intentionally high level of reserve power to enable a Puma to effectively fly at maximum weight with only one functioning engine and proceed with its mission if circumstances require. The cockpit has conventional dual controls for a pilot and copilot, a third seat is provided in the cockpit for a reserve crew member or commander. The Puma features a SFIM-Newmark Type 127 electro-hydraulic autopilot; the autopilot is capable of roll and pitch stabilization, the load hook operator can also enter corrective adjustments of the helicopter's position from his station through the autopilot. The Puma is readily air-transportable by tactical airlift aircraft such as the Transall C-160 and the Lockheed C-130 Hercules; the main rotor, landing gear, and tailboom are all detachable to lower space requirements. Ease of maintenance was one of the objectives pursued in the Puma's design; many of the components and systems that would require routine inspection were positioned to be visible from ground level, use of life-limited components was minimised, and key areas of the mechanical systems were designed to be readily accessed. The Puma is also capable of operating at nighttime, in inhospitable flying conditions, or in a wide range of climates from Arctic to desert environments. Although not included during the original production run, numerous operators of Pumas have installed additional features and modern equipment over the aircraft's service life. The RAF have equipped their Puma fleet with Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation equipment, along with an assortment of self-defense measures including infrared jammers and automatic flares/chaff dispensers, and night vision goggles for night-time flights. The French Army Light Aviation have modernised their Pumas to meet International Civil Aviation Organization standards, this involved additional digital systems to the aircraft, this has included new mission command and control systems, such as the Sitalat data link. Third party companies such as South Africa's Thunder City have provided life extension and modernisation programmes for the Puma, some operators have chosen to refurbish their fleets with glass cockpits. Operational history Argentina During the Falklands War/Guerra de Malvinas in 1982, five SA 330 Pumas of the Argentine Army and one of the Argentine Coast Guard were deployed to the theatre; these could either operate from the decks of Navy vessels as well as performing missions across the breadth of the islands; all were lost in the ensuing conflict. On 3 April, while landing Argentine troops as part of the capture of South Georgia, a Puma was badly damaged by small arms fire from British ground forces and crashed into terrain shortly after. On 9 May, a single Puma was destroyed by a Sea Dart anti-aircraft missile launched from HMS Coventry. On 23 May, a pair of Royal Navy Sea Harriers intercepted three Argentine Pumas in the middle of a supply mission to Port Howard; during the subsequent engagement one Puma was destroyed by colliding with the terrain and a second was disabled and subsequently destroyed by cannon fire from the Sea Harriers, the third Puma escaped. On 30 May, a Puma was lost in the vicinity of Mount Kent under unknown circumstances, possibly due to friendly fire. An article in the Argentine newssite MercoPress states however that on 30 May, at about 11.00 a.m., an Aerospatiale SA-330 Puma helicopter was brought down by a Stinger missile, fired by the SAS, in the vicinity of Mount Kent. Six National Gendarmerie Special Forces were killed and eight more wounded. France In September 1979, four Pumas were employed during Operation Barracuda to transport a French assault team directly upon the government headquarters of the Central African Empire; after which confiscated valuables and assorted diplomatic and political records were quickly extracted to the nearby French embassy by continuous air lifts by the Pumas. One distinctive use of the Puma in French service was as a VIP transport for carrying the President of France both at home and during overseas diplomatic engagements; these duties were transferred to the larger AS332 Super Puma as that became available in sufficient numbers. During the 1991 First Gulf War, France chose to dispatch several Pumas in support of coalition forces engaged in a conflict with Saddam Hussein's Iraq. Those Pumas that had been assigned to the role of performing combat search-and-rescue duties were quickly retrofitted with GPS receivers to enhance their navigational capabilities. As part of France's contribution to the 1990s NATO-led intervention in the Yugoslav Wars, a number of French Pumas operated in the region alongside other Puma operators such as Britain and the United Arab Emirates; one frequent mission for the type was the vital provision of humanitarian aid missions to refugees escaping ongoing ethnic genocide. In April 1994, a French Puma performed a nighttime extraction of a British SAS squad and a downed Sea Harrier pilot from deep inside hostile Bosnian territory, the aircraft came under small arms fire while retreating from the area. On 18 June 1999, a single coordinated aerial insertion of two companies of French paratroopers was performed by 20 Pumas, helping to spearhead the rapid securing of Kosovska Mitrovica by NATO ground forces. As of 2010, both the French Army and French Navy have opted to procure separate variants of the NHIndustries NH90 to ultimately replace the Puma in French military service. About 20 SA 330 Pumas remain in French Air and Space Force service as of 2016. Two Pumas of Escadron d'Hélicoptères 1/67 'Pyrénées (EH 1/60) were deployed to Chad and Niger from June 2014 as part of Operation Barkhane to disrupt Islamist insurgency in the Sahel region. Initially operation from N'Djamena in Chad, the detachment later moved forwards to Dirkou and Madama in Niger, supporting ground troops and interdicting supply routes for the insurgents. The detachment returned to France in September 2015, being relieved by French Army helicopters. Lebanon In 1980-84, the Lebanese Air Force received from France ten SA 330C Pumas to equip its newly raised 9th transport squadron at Beirut Air Base, where it was initially based. In 1983, the squadron was relocated north of the Lebanese capital, with the machines being dispersed in small improvised helipads around Jounieh and Adma for security reasons. On 23 August 1984 a Puma helicopter carrying the Lebanese Armed Forces' Chief-of-staff and commander of the Seventh Brigade, General Nadim al-Hakim and eight other senior military officers crashed in thick fog near Beirut, all passengers and crewmen being killed. On 1 June 1987, the Lebanese Prime-Minister Rachid Karami was assassinated aboard a Puma helicopter en route to Beirut, when a bomb exploded in an attaché case on his lap. Injured in the explosion were Interior Minister Abdullah Rassi and three of the other twelve aides and crewmen on the helicopter, which was severely damaged. On 17 January 1988, another Puma helicopter crashed in the Mediterranean off the Bouar coast, killing both the pilot Captain Georges Sadaka and the co-pilot Jean Azzi, though their bodies were never found. During the final phase of the Lebanese Civil War, the Puma fleet - now reduced to seven or six helicopters on flying condition - was used in liaison flights with neighboring Cyprus on behalf of General Michel Aoun's interim military government, although fuel shortages and maintenance problems forced their crews to ground them for most of the time until the end of the war on October 1990. After the War, the Lebanese Air Force Command made consistent efforts to rebuild its transport helicopter squadron with the help of the United Arab Emirates and seven IAR 330 SM helicopters formerly in service with the United Arab Emirates Air Force were delivered in 2010. In 2013, the Lebanese Air Force converted an IAR 330 SM into a helicopter gunship by mounting on hardened side-swivel mounts a single ADEN Mk 4/5 30mm revolver cannon on a modified pod and a pair of SNEB 68mm rocket launchers taken from decommissioned Hawker Hunter FGA.70 and FGA.70A fighter jets. Re-designated SA 330SM, the new Puma gunship version underwent trials on October 10 that same year during aerial maneuvers held in Hamat Air Base. Although the trials were successful, the SA 300SM was not accepted for active service, with the Lebanese Air Force Command settling instead on an armed version of the Eurocopter AS532 Cougar, of which seven helicopters were scheduled to be received over the next three years. Morocco In 1974, Morocco made an agreement with France for the purchase of 40 Puma helicopters for their armed forces. During the 1970s and 1980s, Moroccan Pumas saw combat service against Polisario Front separatists and helped exert greater control over the Western Sahara region; use of air power by Moroccan forces was severely curtailed after several aircraft were lost or damaged due to the presence of Soviet-provided 2K12 Kub anti-aircraft missiles in rebel hands in the early 1980s. In October 2007, as part of a ˆ2 billion deal between Morocco and France, a total of 25 Moroccan Pumas are to undergo extensive modernisation and upgrades. Pakistan The Pakistan Army has been using Pumas for transportation of army personal, food and equipment near Siachen regions. The Siachen Glacier is the highest battleground on earth, claimed by both India and Pakistan, but administered by India. Pakistan maintains permanent military presence near the region at a height of over 6,000 metres, just about 915 metres below the Indian presence. Portugal In 1969, Portugal emerged as an early export customer for the Puma, ordering 12 of the helicopters for the Portuguese Air Force; Portugal would also be the first country to employ the Pumas in combat operations during the Portuguese Colonial War; the type was used operationally to complement the smaller Alouette III helicopter fleet during the Angola and Mozambican wars of independence, the type had the advantages of greater autonomy and transport capacity over other operated helicopters. During the 1980s, Portugal engaged in an illicit arrangement with South Africa in order to circumvent a United Nations embargo being enforced upon South Africa under which France had refused to provide upgrades and spares for South Africa's own Puma fleet. In the secretive deal, Portugal ordered more powerful engines and new avionics with the public intention of employing them on its own Pumas, however many of the components were diverted via a Zaire-based front company to South African defense firm Armscorp, where they were used to overhaul, upgrade and rebuild the existing Pumas, ultimately resulting in the Atlas Oryx; the Portuguese Pumas also received significant upgrades which were paid for under the terms of the agreement. In 2006, the Portuguese Air Force began receiving deliveries of the AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin, a larger and more capable helicopter, replacing the aging Puma fleet. Since 2007, Portugal has tried unsuccessfully to sell 8 Pumas. Again in May 2015 it is trying to sell them again. South Africa From 1972 onwards, Pumas operated by the SAAF were deployed on extended operations in South West Africa and Angola during the Border War. The Puma was involved in normal trooping; rapid deployment during "follow up" operations; acting as radio relays; evacuation of casualties; rescuing downed aircrew; insertion of Special Forces; and large scale cross border operations such as Savannah, Uric, Protea, Super, and Modular. The majority of South African Puma purchases, including spare parts, were made in advance of an anticipated United Nations embargo that was applied in 1977. South Africa subsequently upgraded many of its Pumas, eventually arriving at the derived indigenous Atlas Oryx; external assistance and components were obtained via secretive transactions involving Portugal during the arms embargo era. In December 1979, South Africa's government acknowledged the presence of its military forces operating in Rhodesia; Pumas were routinely used in support of the South African Army's ground forces. In June 1980, 20 Pumas accompanied a force of 8,000 troops during a South African invasion of Angola in pursuit of nationalist SWAPO fighters. In 1982, the government confirmed that 15 servicemen had been killed when a South African Puma was downed by SWAPO forces, it was one of the worst losses suffered in a single incident in the conflict. During the 1990s, clandestine efforts to purchase surplus SAAF Pumas were made by then-President Pascal Lissouba of the Republic of Congo, most likely intended for use in the Congolese Civil War. When the cruise ship MTS Oceanos sank off the Wild Coast of South Africa in 1991, as many as 13 Pumas played crucial roles in the rescue efforts, winching 225 survivors to safety during bad weather conditions. United Kingdom The first two Pumas for the Royal Air Force were delivered on 29 January 1971, with the first operational squadron (33 Squadron) forming at RAF Odiham on 14 June 1971. The RAF would order a total of 48 Puma HC Mk 1 for transport duties; during the Falklands War, an additional SA 330J formerly operated by Argentine Naval Prefecture was captured by British forces and shipped back to Britain and used as a RAF static training aid for several years. This SA 330J was later refurbished by Westland using parts from damaged RAF Puma XW215 and put into RAF service after a lengthy rebuild as ZE449. The Puma became a common vehicle for British special forces, such as the SAS, and has been described as being "good for covert tasks". Between the early 1970s and the 1990s, RAF Pumas were based at RAF Odiham (33 Squadron and 240 OCU), RAF Gutersloh (230 Squadron) and No. 1563 Flight RAF at RAF Belize. During The Troubles it was also common for a detachment to be based at RAF Aldergrove in Northern Ireland. In 1994, 230 Squadron relocated to RAF Aldergrove to provide a permanent presence to augment the Westland Wessex of 72 Squadron. In 2009, 230 Squadron relocated to RAF Benson together with 33 Squadron from RAF Odiham. Royal Air Force Pumas have also seen active service in Venezuela, Iraq, Yugoslavia, and Zaire. Britain has frequently dispatched Pumas on disaster relief and humanitarian missions, such as during the 2000 Mozambique flood and the 1988 Jamaican flash flood; and to conduct peacekeeping operations in regions such as Zimbabwe and the Persian Gulf. During the climax of the First Gulf War, a joint force of Pumas from 230 and 33 Squadrons proved decisive in rapidly mobilizing and deploying troops to prevent Iraqi troops from sabotaging the Rumaila oil field. From the beginning of the Iraq War, between 2003 and 2009, RAF Pumas would be used to provide troop mobility across the theatre. On 15 April 2007, two RAF Pumas collided during a special forces mission close to Baghdad, Iraq. In November 2007, a Puma crashed during an anti-insurgent operation in Iraq; an inquest found the cause to be pilot error primarily, however the Ministry of Defence (MoD) was criticised for failing to equip RAF Pumas with night vision goggles and inadequate maintenance checks compromising safety, these shortcomings were addressed following the incident. In order to extend the type's service, six ex-South African SA 330L were purchased by Britain in 2002. A programme to produce an extensive upgrade of the RAF's Pumas saw the first Puma HC Mk2 enter service in late 2012 and was completed by early 2014, enabling the Puma fleet to remain in operational service until 2025. In 2008, it was envisaged that 30 aircraft would be upgraded, this was subsequently cut to 22, and was later revised upwards for a total of 24 HC Mk2 Pumas to be produced. Upgrades include the integration of two Turbomeca Makila engines, new gearboxes and tail rotors, new engine controls, digital autopilot, a flight management system, an improved defensive aids suite, as well as ballistic protection for helicopter crew and passengers. The upgraded aircraft can transport double the payload over three times the range than its predecessor, and will be deployed for tactical troop transport, as well as fast moving contingent combat and humanitarian operations. It is expected that the RAF will replace its Puma fleet in the mid-2020s, with the replacement aircraft being procured through the New Medium Helicopter programme. Civil One of the largest and prominent operators of the type was Bristow Helicopters, where the Puma was regularly used for off shore operations over the North Sea. during the 1970s, Bristow had sought to begin replacing their Sikorsky S-61 helicopters, the Puma was selected after a highly competitively-priced bid had been made by Aerospatiale; Puma G-BFSV was the first of the type to enter service with Bristow. From 1979 onwards, the Puma formed the mainstay of the Bristow fleet; the type took over the duties of Bristow's retiring Westland Wessex helicopters in 1981. In 1982, Bristow introduced the more powerful Super Puma into service, supplementing their then-total fleet of 11 SA 330J Pumas. Erickson Inc. has operated four Pumas since 2014. They are used for Vertical replenishment (VERTREP) to the United States Fifth Fleet and United States Seventh Fleet. Variants Aérospatiale versions SA 330A Prototypes, originally called "Alouette IV". SA 330B Initial production version for the French Army Light Aviation. Powered by 884 kW (1,185 hp) Turbomeca Turmo IIIC4 engines. 132 purchased by France. SA 330 Orchidée SA 330 modified to carry an Orchidée battlefield surveillance radar system with a rotating underfuselage antenna, for the French Army. One demonstrator was built, flying in 1986. The Orchidée programme was cancelled in 1990, but the prototype rushed back into service in 1991 to serve in the Gulf War, leading to production of a similar system based on the Eurocopter Cougar. SA 330C Initial export production version. Powered by 1,044 kW (1,400 hp) Turbomeca Turmo IVB engines. SA.330E Version produced by Westland Helicopters for the RAF under the designation Puma HC Mk. 1. SA.330F Initial civilian export production version with Turbomeca Turmo IIIC4 turboshaft engines. SA.330G Upgraded civilian version with 1175 kW (1,575 hp) Turbomeca Turmo IVC engines. SA.330H Upgraded French Army and export version with Turbomeca Turmo IVC engines and composite main rotor blades. Designated SA 330Ba by the French Air and Space Force. All surviving French Army SA 330Bs converted to this standard. SA.330J Upgraded civil transport version with composite rotor blades and with higher maximum takeoff weight. SA.330L Upgraded version for "hot and high" conditions. Military equivalent to civil SA.330J. SA.330S Upgraded SA 330L (themselves converted from SA 330C) version for the Portuguese Air Force. Powered by Turbomeca Makila engines. SA.330SM Lebanese converted gunship version by mounting on hardened side-swivel mounts a single ADEN Mk 4/5 30mm revolver cannon on a modified pod and a pair of SNEB 68mm rocket launchers on each side. SA.330Z Prototype with "fenestron" tail rotor. SA.331 Puma Makila Engine test-bed for the AS.332 Super Puma series, powered by two Turbomeca Makila engines. Versions by other manufacturers Atlas Aircraft Corporation Oryx Remanufactured and upgraded SA 330 Puma built for the South African Air Force. IPTN NAS 330J Version that was assembled by IPTN of Indonesia under the local designation NAS 330J and the Aerospatiale designation of SA 330J. Eleven units were produced. IAR 330 Licence-built version of the SA 330 Puma manufactured by Industria Aeronautică Română of Romania. Designated as the SA 330L by Aerospatiale. IAR-330 Puma SOCAT 24 modified for antitank warfare. IAR-330 Puma Naval 3 modified for the Romanian Navy, using the SOCAT avionics. Westland Puma HC Mk 1 SA 330E equivalent assembled by Westland Helicopters for the RAF, first flown on 25 November 1970. Several similarities to the SA 330B employed by the French Armed Forces. The RAF placed an initial order for 40 Pumas in 1967, with a further eight attrition replacement aircraft in 1979. Westland Puma HC Mk 2 Modified Puma HC Mk1s, total of 24 upgraded with more powerful Turbomeca Makila 1A1 engines, a glass cockpit and new avionics, secure communications and improved self-protection equipment. Operators Current operators Brazil Brazilian Air Force Chile Chilean Army Democratic Republic of the Congo Democratic Congo Air Force Ecuador Ecuadorian Army France French Air and Space Force French Army Gabon Military of Gabon Guinea Guinea Air Force Indonesia Indonesian Air Force Kenya Kenya Air Force Kuwait Kuwait Air Force Lebanon Lebanese Air Force Malawi Malawi Army Morocco Royal Moroccan Air Force Pakistan Pakistan Air Force Pakistan Army Romania Romanian Air Force (See IAR 330) Romanian Navy (See IAR 330) United Kingdom Royal Air Force No. 28 Squadron (OCU) (2015-present) No. 33 Squadron (1971-present) No. 230 Squadron (1971-present) No. 240 Operational Conversion Unit (1971-1993) No. 1563 Flight (1971-1993; 2004-2009) Former operators Algeria Algerian Air Force Argentina Argentine Army Argentine Coast Guard Belgium Gendarmerie Cameroon Cameroon Air Force Ethiopia Ethiopian Air Force Iraq Iraqi Air Force Ireland Irish Air Corps Mexico Mexican Air Force Nigeria Nigerian Air Force Oman Royal Air Force of Oman Philippines Philippine Air Force Portugal Portuguese Air Force Senegal Senegalese Air Force South Africa South African Air Force Togo Togolese Air Force Tunisia Tunisian Air Force United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates Air Force Notable accidents and incidents 29 March 2022 - Eight UN peacekeepers, six Pakistanis, a Russian and a Serb, part of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo were killed in a crash of a Puma helicopter operated by the Pakistan Army Aviation Corps while on a reconnaissance mission in the troubled eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Cause of the crash is yet to be ascertained. Specifications (SA 330H Puma) Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976-77 General characteristics Crew: 3 Capacity: 16 passengers Length: 18.15 m (59 ft 6½ in) Rotor diameter: 15.00 m (49 ft 2½ in) Height: 5.14 m (16 ft 10½ in) Disc area: 177.0 m² (1,905 ft²) Empty weight: 3,536 kg (7,795 lb) Max takeoff weight: 7,000 kg (15,430 lb) Powerplant: 2× Turbomeca Turmo IVC turboshafts, 1,175 kW (1,575 hp) each Performance Never exceed speed: 273 km/h (147 knots, 169 mph) Maximum speed: 257 km/h (138 knots, 159 mph) Cruise speed: 248 km/h (134 knots, 154 mph) econ cruise Range: 580 km (313 nm, 360 mi) Service ceiling: 4,800 m (15,750 ft) Rate of climb: 7.1 m/s (1,400 ft/min) Armament Guns: Coaxial 7.62 mm (0.30 in) machine guns Side-firing 20 mm (0.787 in) cannon Various others Related development Atlas Oryx Denel Rooivalk Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma Eurocopter AS532 Cougar Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma Mk II+ Eurocopter EC725 Super Cougar IAR 330 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Mil Mi-8 NH 90 Aérospatiale SA 360 Dauphin SA 360 Dauphin Role - Utility helicopter National origin - France Manufacturer - Aérospatiale First flight - 2 June 1972 Introduction - 1976 Produced - 1976-77 Number built - 2 prototypes + 34 production examples Developed into - Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin The Aérospatiale SA 360 Dauphin was a single-engine French utility helicopter developed and produced by aerospace manufacturer Aérospatiale. It was developed during the early 1970s as a replacement for the company's popular Alouette III helicopter, as well as to fill in an apparent gap in the company's existing product line, falling within the six to ten-seat helicopter category. Performing its maiden flight on 2 June 1972, the prototypes the demonstrated type's performance capacities by setting three world airspeed records for helicopters in the 1,750 kg - 3,000 kg class. The Dauphin was marketed towards both civilian and military customers, however, as the new helicopter supposedly offered little advantage over its predecessor, the type possessed only a limited market appeal and did not sell well. Ultimately, production of the SA 360 Dauphin was abandoned after only a few dozen of helicopters had been completed. However, Aérospatiale did not give up on the design, subsequently developing a twin-engine derivative of the SA 360, the Dauphin 2, which proved to be commercially successful, having been in production for in excess of 40 years. Following the integration of Aérospatiale's helicopter division into the multinational Eurocopter consortium in 1992, the Dauphin 2 designation was dropped, and Eurocopter-built examples have been simply referred to as "Dauphin". The retronym "Dauphin 1" is sometimes applied to the original Dauphin to distinguish the two. Development During the 1960s, French aircraft company Sud Aviation, which merged into aerospace manufacturer Aérospatiale at the end of the decade, had developed a broad range of rotorcraft, including the Gazelle, a fast scout/light attack helicopter, and the Puma, a medium-sized utility helicopter. Towards the end of that decade, the company recognised that there was a vacant niche between the smaller Gazelle and the larger Puma for which a new helicopter could be developed to fulfil. Accordingly, during the early 1970s, Aérospatiale undertook a project to develop such a rotorcraft, resulting in the SA 360 Dauphin. On 2 June 1972, the first of two Dauphin prototypes (registration F-WSQL) performed the first of 180 test flights in its original configuration. It was initially powered by a single Turbomeca Astazou XVI turboshaft engine, capable of generating up to 730 kW (980 hp) of thrust. The original design of the Dauphin drew heavily upon several of Aérospatiale's other rotorcraft, having adopted the fenestron anti-torque device of the Gazelle and the main rotor system of the Alouette III. Following an initial period of evaluation, a number of modifications were incorporated onto the prototypes. These included an increase of engine power via the adoption of the more powerful Astazou XVIIIA powerplant, capable of generating up to 780 kW (1,050 hp). Additionally, the original metal rotor blades were replaced with plastic counterparts, Aérospatiale engineers had made this change for the purpose of reducing both vibration levels and instances of ground resonance. Thus modified, test flights resumed in May 1973, in time to present the new aircraft at that year's Paris Air Show. In the meantime, a second prototype (registration F-WSQX) joined the test programme, flying first on 29 January. At the show, the first prototype broke three world airspeed records for helicopters in the 1,750 kg - 3,000 kg class (FAI class E-1d). Piloted by Roland Coffignot, while carrying a dummy payload to represent eight passengers, it broke the 100 km closed-circuit (299 km/h, 186 mph), 3 km straight-course (312 km/h, 195 mph), and 15 km straight-course (303 km/h, 189 mph) records. Series production of the definitive SA 360C version was started in 1974; the first completed aircraft made its first flight during April 1975. French civil certification was obtained in December that year, while deliveries to customers commenced during January 1976. In the meantime, Aérospatiale had flown the prototype of the improved Dauphin 2 nearly a year prior to this, on 24 January 1975; which would ultimately prove the death-knell for the original Dauphin model. A helicopter of this size that was powered by only a single engine was perceived in the marketplace as something of an anomaly and rather under-powered, meaning that by the end of 1976, Aérospatiale was left with 15 airframes - almost half those produced to date - with no buyers. Accordingly, production of the type was terminated during the following year, being replaced almost immediately by the twin-engined AS365 Dauphin. A single airframe (Construction Number 1012, registration F-WZAK) was modified by Aérospatiale from the standard SA 360C configuration into a new version, which was optimised for hot-and-high conditions, designated SA 360H. The major differences from its former configuration were the installation of an even more powerful Astazou XXB engine, capable of providing up to 1,040 kW (1,400 hp), along with the adoption of the Starflex rotorhead which had been originally developed for the Aérospatiale AS350 Écureuil helicopter. The company subsequently decided that the most likely customers for this more powerful model would to be military air arms, thus the sole rotorcraft was further modified and re-designated SA 360HCL (Helicoptere de Combat Leger - "Light Combat Helicopter"). In this configuration, it was outfitted with a SFIM APX M397 roof-mounted, gyro-stabilised sight, and a nose-mounted sensor package incorporating a SFIM Vénus night-vision system and TRT Hector thermal-vision system. Armament consisted of eight launcher tubes for Euromissile HOT missiles, with options to carry most of the armament packages used by the lighter Gazelle helicopter. Thus equipped, the SA 360HCL could carry thirteen combat-ready troops into battle, as well as be used in the area neutralisation or anti-tank role. This sole rotorcraft was taken on by the Armée de Terre for evaluation purposes, but no production order ever followed for the type. Design The Aérospatiale SA 360 Dauphin was a single-engine French utility helicopter. Much of its design was originally derived from the Alouette III that the Dauphin had been developed as a successor to, and thus shares many features, such as the rotor blades of its four-bladed main rotor, with this earlier rotorcraft. The majority of Dauphins were powered by a single Astazou XVIIIA powerplant, capable of generating up to 780 kW (1,050 hp) of thrust; this powerplant had been derived from the Astazou XIV engine that powered the latter-built examples of the Alouette III family. The Dauphin featured a fully enclosed cabin while could be provisioned with seating for a maximum of nine passengers. It was fitted with a fixed tailwheel undercarriage with spatted mainwheels; this arrangement was reportedly was a source of difficulties while landing on compact helipads. One of the Dauphin's more noticeable innovations over the Alouette III was the adoption of a thirteen-bladed fenestron anti-torque device embedded within its tail. While the fenestron had been first introduced a few years earlier upon another of Aérospatiale's rotorcraft, the Gazelle, the Dauphin's implementation featured considerable refinement over the earlier arrangement; the direction of rotation was reversed so that the blade on the bottom was the advancing blade, the original direction having proved unfavourable when encountering the downwash of the main rotor during early testing of the Dauphin. Testing demonstrated the fenestron to have clear performance advantages over the conventional tail rotor, leading to it being applied to numerous other rotorcraft following the Dauphin as well. According to aviation author J. Mac McClellan, even in its original guise, the flying qualities of the Dauphin were generally appreciated by pilots. One small area of criticism was that pilots had to enter and exit the front seats via the main cabin, as the rotorcraft lacked forward crew doors; passengers were also inconvenienced by the presence of a sizable vertical column in the center of the cabin that accommodated the main pushrods. These shortcomings were addressed in subsequent versions of the twin-engined Dauphin 2. Variants SA 360 - two prototypes SA 360C - standard production version, 34 built SA 360A - navalised version for Aeronavale, 1 converted from SA 360C SA 361H - "hot and high" version with more powerful (969 kW (1,300 shp)) Astazou XX engine, glassfibre rotor blades and new rotor hub. Three converted from SA 360 and 360C SA 361HCL - militarised version, 1 converted from SA 361H SA 365C2- twin engined version with more powerful 2 × Turbomeca Arriel 1A2 turboshaft engines, 500 kW (670 hp) each Operators Hong Kong Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force United States New York Helicopter Slovenia Helitours - Operating two SA 365 C2 Specifications (SA 360C Dauphin) Data from Air International July 1995 General characteristics Crew: 1 or 2 pilots Capacity: 8-9 passengers Length: 13.20 m (43 ft 4 in) including rotor 10.98 m (36 ft) (fuselage length) Height: 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) Empty weight: 1,580 kg (3,483 lb) Max takeoff weight: 3,000 kg (6,614 lb) Powerplant: 1 × Turbomeca Astazou XVIIIA turboshaft, 783 kW (1,050 hp) Main rotor diameter: 11.5 m (37 ft 9 in) Main rotor area: 103.9 m2 (1,118 sq ft) Blade section NACA 0012 Performance Cruise speed: 274 km/h (170 mph, 148 kn) Never exceed speed: 315 km/h (196 mph, 170 kn) Range: 675 km (419 mi, 364 nmi) (max fuel) Service ceiling: 4,600 m (15,100 ft) Rate of climb: 9 m/s (1,800 ft/min) Related development Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin Harbin Z-9 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era AgustaWestland AW119 Koala Aérospatiale N 262 (Aérospatiale Fregate) N 262 / Frégate Role - Turboprop airliner National origin - France Manufacturer - Aérospatiale First flight - N 262: 24 December 1962 Introduction - 1964 Primary users - French Air Force French Navy Allegheny Airlines Produced - 1962-1976 Number built - 110 Developed from - Nord 260 The Aérospatiale N 262 is a French twin-turboprop high-wing airliner built first by Nord Aviation (merged into Aérospatiale in 1970). The aircraft was also known as the Nord 262. Design and development In 1957, the French aircraft manufacturer Max Holste began work on a twin-engined utility transport aircraft to replace the Douglas DC-3/C-47 Skytrain. The prototype, the Max Holste MH.250 Super Broussard, was powered by two Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engines and first flew on 20 May 1959. A second prototype, the MH.260, powered by Turbomeca Bastan turboprop engines flew on 29 July 1960. In 1959, state-owned Nord Aviation (later merged with Sud Aviation and renamed Aérospatiale) signed an agreement with Max Holste to market and help produce the MH.260. Financial problems at Max Holste, however, led to Nord taking on the whole programme, with including further development of the aircraft, while Max Holste concentrated on the production of light aircraft, and was renamed Reims Aviation. While nine MH.260s were built, the type found no commercial buyers, and Nord redesigned the aircraft to have a pressurized cabin and to meet US airworthiness requirements. The new airliner, the Nord 262, was like the MH.260, a high-winged high-wing cantilever monoplane of all-metal construction, powered by two Turbomeca Bastan, and fitted with a retractable tricycle undercarriage, with the main wheels retracting into fuselage-mounted fairings. Pressurization brought a new circular-section fuselage, which normally was fitted with seats for 26 passengers, with a maximum capacity of 29 passengers. The first prototype took to the skies for the first time on 24 December 1962 and the aircraft was exhibited at the June 1963 Paris Air Show. The aircraft received its French airworthiness certificate on 16 July 1964 and entered initial commercial service with Air Inter of France in September that year. Four of the first aircraft 262A, 262B, 262C, and 262D were built, the first two fitted with Bastan IVC engines, while the C and D models were fitted with the higher-powered Bastan VIIC. Of these four aircraft, the latter two saw their first air time in July 1968. Most sales of the initial aircraft were not in the passenger field, but rather the military field. The 262D was the most popular and marketed as Frégate. As for the American designation, the "Mohawk 298" airplanes were modified Nord 262s and first flew on 7 January 1975, equipped with Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-45 turboprops. Built in order to meet United States FAR 298 regulation, the modification of the aircraft was overseen by Mohawk Air Services and outsourced to Frakes Aviation. Allegheny Airlines was the initial operator of the aircraft. Joel Krane, the chairman of the FOEB (Flight Operations Evaluation Board) determined that a common type rating could be issued for the Nord 262 and Mohawk 298. Appropriate differences training would be required for transitioning pilots. Variants Max Holste MH.250 Super Broussard Prototype 17-seat transport first flown in 1959. Max Holste MH.260 Super Broussard 23 passenger production variant of the MH.250, ten ordered but not completed before development handed over to Nord Aviation. N 262 Prototypes and initial production version. N 262A Early standard production version (preceded by N 262B). Powered by Turbomeca Bastan VIC engines. Certified 15 March 1965 with first delivery to Lake Central Airlines on 17 August 1965. N 262B Initial production version for Air Inter, powered by two Bastan VIC turboprops. Four built, with first example flown 8 June 1964, certification 16 July 1964 and delivery 24 July 1964. N 262C Frégate Bastan VIIC engines and greater wingspan. N 262D Frégate French Air Force version of N-262C. N 262E A maritime patrol and training version used by the Aviation navale (French Navy). Mohawk 298 Nine aircraft updated by Frakes Aviation for Allegheny Airlines between 1975 and 1978. Powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-45 engines driving five-bladed propellers. Operators As of July 2011 a total of three Nord 262 aircraft remain in airline service with the following airlines: Equatorial International Airlines (1) International Trans Air Business (1) RACSA (1) Former operators Aerovias Air Ceylon Air Florida Commuter (operated by National Commuter Airlines) Air Inter Air Madagascar Alisarda Allegheny Airlines (Mohawk 298 conversion) Altair Airlines B.C. Air Lines (acquired by Pacific Western Airlines) Cimber Air Crown Airways Dan-Air Delta Air Transport Filipinas Orient Airways Golden Gate Airlines (former Swift Aire aircraft) IFG Interregional Fluggesellschaft Indonesia Airlines Japan Domestic Airlines Lake Central Airlines Linjeflyg Malu Aviation Mohawk Air Service National Commuter Airlines (NATCOM) (operated both Nord 262 and Mohawk 298 aircraft in Air Florida Commuter feeder service) Pacific Western Airlines (former B.C. Air Lines aircraft) Pocono Airlines Queensland Pacific Airlines Ransome Airlines Rhein Air (Switzerland) Rousseau Aviation [fr] Scheduled Skyways (U.S. based commuter air carrier) Swift Aire Lines (commuter air carrier based in San Luis Obispo, CA, USA) Tempelhof Airways Trans Service Airlift Wideroe Military operators Angola National Air Force of Angola Burkina Faso Republic of the Congo Congolese Air Force France French Air Force French Navy Gabon Specifications (Nord 262A) Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1965-66 General characteristics Crew: 2 Capacity: 29 passengers Length: 19.28 m (63 ft 3 in) Wingspan: 21.90 m (71 ft 10 in) Height: 6.21 m (20 ft 4 in) Wing area: 55.0 m2 (592 sq ft) Aspect ratio: 8.72:1 Airfoil: NACA 23016 at root, NACA 23012 (mod.) at tip Empty weight: 6,654 kg (14,670 lb) Max takeoff weight: 10,300 kg (22,708 lb) Fuel capacity: 2,000 L (530 US gal; 440 imp gal) Powerplant: 2 × Turbomeca Bastan VIC turboprops, 794 kW (1,065 shp) each (eshp) Propellers: 3-bladed Ratier-Figae FH.146 variable-pitch propellers, 3.20 m (10 ft 6 in) diameter Performance Maximum speed: 385 km/h (239 mph, 208 kn) Cruise speed: 360 km/h (220 mph, 190 kn) (econ cruise) Stall speed: 128 km/h (80 mph, 69 kn) (wheels and flaps down) Never exceed speed: 498 km/h (309 mph, 269 kn) Range: 1,110 km (690 mi, 600 nmi) (max fuel, 2,010 kg (4,430 lb) payload) Service ceiling: 7,300 m (24,000 ft) Rate of climb: 6.4 m/s (1,250 ft/min) Takeoff distance to 10.5 m (35 ft): 1,200 m (4,000 ft) Landing distance from 15 m (50 ft): 1,100 m (3,500 ft) Related development Nord 260 Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era ATR 42 British Aerospace Jetstream 41 Fokker F27 Friendship Let L-410 Turbolet Aérospatiale Gazelle SA 341/SA 342 Gazelle Role - Utility helicopter / Armed helicopter National origin - France Manufacturer - Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale/Westland Aircraft First flight - 7 April 1967 (SA.340) Introduction - 1973 Status - In service Primary users - French Army / British Army / Egyptian Air Force / Lebanese Air Force Produced - 1967-1996 Number built - 1,775 Developed from - Aérospatiale Alouette III The Aérospatiale Gazelle (company designations SA 340, SA 341 and SA 342) is a French five-seat helicopter, commonly used for light transport, scouting and light attack duties. It is powered by a single Turbomeca Astazou turbine engine and was the first helicopter to feature a fenestron tail instead of a conventional tail rotor. It was designed by Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, and manufactured in France and the United Kingdom through a joint production agreement with Westland Aircraft. Further manufacturing under license was performed by SOKO in Yugoslavia and the Arab British Helicopter Company (ABHCO) in Egypt. Since being introduced to service in 1973, the Gazelle has been procured and operated by a number of export customers. It has also participated in numerous conflicts around the world, including by Syria during the 1982 Lebanon War, by Rwanda during the Rwandan Civil War in the 1990s, and by numerous participants on both sides of the 1991 Gulf War. In French service, the Gazelle has been supplemented as an attack helicopter by the larger Eurocopter Tiger, but remains in use primarily as a scout helicopter. Development The Gazelle originated in a French Army requirement for a lightweight observation helicopter intended to replace the Aérospatiale Alouette III; early on in the aircraft's development, the decision was taken to enlarge the helicopter to enable greater versatility and make it more attractive for the export market. In 1966, Sud Aviation began working on a light observation helicopter to replace its Alouette II with seating for five people. Early on, the Gazelle attracted British interest, which resulted in a major joint development and production work share agreement between Sud Aviation and Westland. The deal, signed in February 1967, allowed the production in Britain of 292 Gazelles and 48 Sud Aviation SA 330 Puma medium transport helicopters ordered by the British armed forces; in return Sud Aviation was given a work share in the manufacturing programme for the 40 Westland Lynx naval helicopters for the French Navy. Additionally, Westland would have a 65% work share in the manufacturing, and be a joint partner to Sud Aviation on further refinements and upgrades to the Gazelle. Westland would produce a total of 262 Gazelles of various models, mainly for various branches of the British armed forces, Gazelles for the civil market were also produced. The first prototype SA 340 flew for the first time on 7 April 1967, it initially flew with a conventional tail rotor taken from the Alouette II. The tail was replaced in early 1968 with the distinctive fenestron tail on the second prototype. Four SA 341 prototypes were flown, including one for British firm Westland Helicopters. On 6 August 1971, the first production Gazelle conducted its first flight. On 13 May 1967, a Gazelle demonstrated its speed capabilities when two separate world speed records were broken on a closed course, achieving speeds of 307 km/h over 3 kilometres and 292 km/h over 100 kilometres. In service with the French Army Light Aviation (ALAT), the Gazelle is used primarily as an anti-tank gunship (SA 342M) armed with Euromissile HOT missiles. A light support version (SA 341F) equipped with a 20 mm cannon is used as well as anti-air variants carrying the Mistral air-to-air missile (Gazelle Celtic based on the SA 341F, Gazelle Mistral based on the SA 342M). The latest anti-tank and reconnaissance versions carry the Viviane thermal imagery system and so are called Gazelle Viviane. The Gazelle is being replaced in frontline duties by the Eurocopter Tiger, but will continue to be used for light transport and liaison roles. It also served with all branches of the British armed forces - the Royal Air Force, Royal Navy (including in support of the Royal Marines) and the British Army in a variety of roles. Four versions of the Gazelle were used by the British forces. The SA 341D was designated Gazelle HT.3 in RAF service, equipped as a helicopter pilot trainer (hence HT). The SA 341E was used by the RAF for communications duties and VIP transport as the Gazelle HCC.4. The SA 341C was purchased as the Gazelle HT.2 pilot trainer for the Royal Navy; training variants have been replaced by the Squirrel HT1. The SA 341B was equipped to a specification for the Army Air Corps as the Gazelle AH.1 (from Army Helicopter Mark 1). The Gazelle proved to be a commercial success, which led Aérospatiale, as Sud Aviation had become, to quickly develop and introduce the SA 342 Gazelle series, which was equipped with uprated powerplants. Licensed production of the type did not just take place in the UK, domestic manufacturing was also conducted by Egyptian firm ABHCO. Yugoslavian production by SOKO reportedly produced a total of 132 Gazelles. As the Gazelle became progressively older, newer combat helicopters were brought into service in the anti-tank role; thus those aircraft previously configured as attack helicopters were often repurposed for other, secondary support duties, such as an Air Observation Post (AOP) for directing artillery fire, airborne forward air controller (ABFAC) to direct ground-attack aircraft, casualty evacuation, liaison, and communications relay missions. Design Originally developed as a replacement to Aérospatiale's Alouette helicopter, some aspects of the Gazelle such as its purpose and layout were based on the previous model. The Gazelle featured several important innovations. It was the first helicopter with a fenestron or fantail; this is a shrouded multi-blade anti-torque device housed in the vertical surface of the Gazelle's tail, where it replaces a conventional tail rotor. The fenestron, while requiring a small increase in power at slow speeds, has advantages such as being considerably less vulnerable to damage, safer for people working around the helicopter and with low power requirements at cruising speeds, and has been described as "far more suitable for high-speed flight". The fenestron is likely to have been one of the key advances that allowed the Gazelle to become the world's fastest helicopter in its class. The main rotor system was originally based upon the rigid rotor technology developed by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm for the MBB Bo 105; however, due to control problems experienced while at high speeds upon prototype aircraft, the rigid rotor was replaced with a semi-articulated one on production aircraft. The difficulties experienced with the early design of the main rotor was one of the factors contributing to the lengthy development time of the Gazelle. The individual rotor blades were made from composite materials, primarily fiberglass, and had been designed for an extremely long operational lifespan; composite rotor blades would become common on later helicopters. The main rotor is described as having a "wide range of tolerance" for autorotation. The Gazelle is capable of transporting up to five passengers and up to 1,320 pounds of cargo on the underside cargo hook, or alternatively up to 1,100 pounds of freight in 80 cubic feet of internal space in the rear of the cabin. Armed variants would carry up to four HOT (Haut subsonique Optiquement Téléguidé Tiré d'un Tube) wire-guided anti-tank missiles, or a forward firing 20mm cannon mounted to the fuselage sides with its ammunition supply placed in the cabin. Various optional equipment can be installed upon the Gazelle, such as fittings for engine noise suppression, 53 gallon ferry tanks, a rescue winch capable of lifting up to 390 pounds, emergency flotation gear, particle filter, high landing skids, cabin heater, adjustable landing lights, and engine anti-icing systems. While the Gazelle had been developed under a military-orientated design programme, following the type's entry to service increasing attention to the commercial market was paid as well. The type was marketed to civil customers; notably, civilian operator Vought Helicopters at one point had a fleet of at least 70 Gazelles. Civil-orientated Gazelles often included an external baggage access door mounted beneath the main cabin. The Gazelle was the first helicopter to be adapted for single-pilot operations under instrument flight rules. An advanced duplex autopilot system was developed by Honeywell in order to allow the pilot to not be overworked during solo flights; the Gazelle was chosen as the platform to develop this capability as it was one of the faster and more stable helicopters in service at that point and had a reputation for being easy to fly. The docile flying abilities of the Gazelle are such that it has been reported as being capable of comfortably flying without its main hydraulic system operation at speeds of up to 100 knots. The flight controls are highly responsive; unusually, the Gazelle lacks a throttle or a trimming system. Hydraulic servo boosters are present on all flight control circuits to mitigate control difficulties in the event of equipment failure. The Gazelle was designed to be easy to maintain, all bearings were life-rated without need for continuous application of lubrication and most fluid reservoirs to be rapidly inspected. The emphasis in the design stage of achieving minimal maintenance requirements contributed towards the helicopter's low running costs; many of the components were designed to have a service life in excess of 700 flying hours, and in some cases 1,200 flight hours, before requiring replacement. Due to the performance of many of the Gazelle's subsystems, features pioneered upon the Gazelle such as the fenestron would appear upon later Aerospatiale designs. As the Gazelle continued to serve into the 21st century, several major modernisation and upgrade programs were undertaken, commonly adding new avionics to increase the aircraft's capabilities. Aerotec group offered an overhaul package to existing operators, which comprised upgraded ballistic protection, night vision goggles, new munitions including rockets and machine guns, and 3D navigational displays; as of 2013, Egypt is said to be interested in upgrading their domestically built Gazelles. QinetiQ developed a Direct Voice Input (DVI) system for the Gazelle, the DVI system enables voice control over many aspects of the aircraft, lowering the demands placed upon the crew. In September 2011, QinetiQ and Northrop Grumman proposed outfitting former British Gazelles with autonomous flight management systems derived from the Northrop Grumman MQ-8 Fire Scout, converting them into unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)s to meet a Royal Navy requirement for an unmanned maritime aerial platform. Operational history China During the 1980s, China acquired eight SA 342L combat helicopters; these were the first dedicated attack helicopters to be operated by the People's Liberation Army. The purchase of further aircraft, including licensed production of the aircraft in China, had been under consideration, but this initiative was apparently abandoned following the end of the Cold War. The small fleet was used to develop anti-armour warfare tactics, Gazelles have also been frequently used to simulate hostile forces during military training exercises. France The French Army has deployed the Gazelle overseas in many large-scale operations, often in support of international military interventions; including in Chad (in the 1980s), the former Yugoslavia (1990s), Djibouti (1991-1992), Somalia (1993), Cote d'Ivoire (2002-present) and Afghanistan (2002-2021). In 1990-1991, upwards of 50 French Gazelles were deployed as part of France's contribution to coalition forces during the First Gulf War. During the subsequent military action, known as Operation Desert Storm, HOT-carrying Gazelles were employed by several nations' forces, including Kuwait's air force, against Iraqi military forces occupying neighbouring Kuwait. During the coalition's offensive into Kuwait, French Gazelles adopted a tactic of strafing enemy tanks, vehicles, and bunkers in continuous waves at high speed. Gazelles have often been dispatched to support and protect UN international missions, such as the 1992 intervention in the Bosnian War. In addition to performing land-based operations, French Gazelles have also been frequently deployed from French naval vessels. In April 2008, witnesses reported up to six French Gazelles reportedly firing rockets upon Somali pirates during a major counter-piracy operation. During the 2011 military intervention in Libya, multiple Gazelles were operated from the French Navy's amphibious assault ship Tonnerre; strikes were launched into Libya against pro-Gadhafi military forces. Military interventions in African nations, particularly former French colonies, have often been supported by Gazelles in both reconnaissance and attack roles; nations involved in previous engagements include Chad, Djibouti, Somalia, and the Cote d'Ivoire. In April 2011, as part of a UN-mandated campaign in Côte d'Ivoire, four Gazelle attack helicopters, accompanied by two Mil Mi-24 gunships, opened fire upon the compound of rebel president Gbagbo to neutralise heavy weaponry, which led to his surrender. In January 2013, Gazelles were used as gunships in the Opération Serval in Mali, performing raids upon insurgent forces fighting government forces in the north of the country. In 2016 the Direction générale de l'armement announced that Gazelle helicopters of the French Army Aviation's 4th Special Forces Helicopter Regiment (4ème RHFS) could be equipped with the M134 Minigun. Iraq During the Iran-Iraq War fought throughout most of the 1980s, a significant amount of French-built military equipment was purchased by Iraq, including a fleet of 40 HOT-armed Gazelles. Iraq reportedly received roughly 100 Gazelle helicopters. The Gazelle was commonly used in conjunction with Soviet-built Mil Mi-24 gunships, and were frequently used in counterattacks against Iranian forces. By 2000, following significant equipment losses resulting from the 1991 Gulf War, Iraq reportedly had only 20 Gazelles left in its inventory. In 2003, US intelligence officials alleged that a French firm had continued to sell spare components for the Gazelle and other French-built aircraft to Iraq via a third-party trading company, despite an embargo being in place. Eurocopter, Aerospatiale's successor company, had denied playing any role, stating in 2008 that "no parts have been delivered to Iraq". In April 2009, Iraq, as part of a larger military procurement initiative, bought six Gazelles from France for training purposes. Syria Syrian Gazelles were used extensively during the 1982 Lebanon War. In the face of a major Israeli ground advance, repetitive harassment attacks were launched by the Gazelles, which were able to slow their advance. According to author Roger Spiller, panic and a sense of vulnerability quickly spread amongst Israeli tank crews following the first of these Gazelle strikes on 8 June 1982; the range of the Gazelle's HOT missiles being a key factor in its effectiveness. The effectiveness of the Syrian helicopter raids was reduced throughout the month of June as Syrian air defenses were progressively eroded and the Israeli Air Force took aerial supremacy over Eastern Lebanon, thus making operations by attack helicopters increasingly vulnerable. However, Gazelle strikes continued to be successfully performed up to the issuing of a ceasefire. The 1982 war served to highlight the importance and role of attack helicopters in future conflicts due to their performance on both sides of the conflict. Following the end of the war, the Syrian Army would claim that significant damage had been delivered against Israeli forces, such as the destruction of 30 tanks and 50 other vehicles, against the loss of five helicopters. Israel would claim a loss of seven tanks to the Gazelle strikes and the downing of 12 Syrian Gazelles. Author Kenneth Michael Pollack described the role of Syria's Gazelle helicopters as being "psychologically effective against the Israelis but did little actual damage. Although they employed good Western-style 'pop-up' tactics, the Gazelles were not able to manage more than a few armor kills during the war". Following the end of the war, Syria increased the size of its attack helicopter fleet from 16 to 50 Gazelles, complemented by a further 50 heavier Mil Mi-24 gunships. Gazelles were also used several times in Syria during its civil war, most recently being seen supporting troops in the Palmyra Offensive using unguided missiles and HOT ATGMs. Kuwait During the 1991 Gulf War, roughly 15 Gazelles were able to retreat into neighbouring Saudi Arabia, along with other elements of Kuwait's armed forces, during the invasion of the nation by Iraq. During the subsequent coalition offensive to dislodge Iraqi forces from Kuwait, several of the escaped Kuwaiti Gazelles launched attack missions into occupied Kuwait to destroy Iraqi tanks and other, military targets. Ecuador The Gazelle was used by the Ecuadoran Army during the 1995 Cenepa war between Ecuador and neighboring Peru, performing missions such as close air support and escorting other helicopters. In 2008, a minor diplomatic spat broke out between Colombia and Ecuador following a reportedly accidental incursion into Colombian airspace by an Ecuadoran Gazelle. United Kingdom In 1973, 142 aircraft were on order by the UK, out of a then-intended fleet of 250. No. 660 Squadron AAC, based in Salamanca Barracks, Germany, was the first British Army unit to be equipped with Gazelles, entering operational service on 6 July 1974. The Gazelles, replacements for the Sioux, were assigned the roles of reconnaissance, troop deployment, direction of artillery fire, casualty evacuation and anti-tank operations. In August 1974, 30 were based at CFS Tern Hill for RAF helicopter training. The Royal Navy's Gazelles entered service in December 1974 with 705 Naval Air Squadron, Culdrose, to provide all-through flying training in preparation for the Westland Lynx's service entry. A total of 23 Gazelles were ordered for Culdrose. Army-owned AH.1s also entered service with 3 Commando Brigade Air Squadron (3 CBAS) of the Royal Marines and later, the Commando Helicopter Force (CHF) of the Fleet Air Arm, where they operated as utility and reconnaissance helicopters in support of the Royal Marines. The 12 Gazelles for 3 CBAS had entered service in 1975, by which time, there were 310 Gazelles on order for the British military. Gazelles that had replaced the Sioux in RAF Sek Kong towards the end of 1974(?) had been found unsuitable for Hong Kong and, by the end of 1978, had been returned to the UK and they were replaced by the Scout AH1. During its Cold War service period, the Army Gazelles flew over 660,000 hours and had over 1,000 modifications made to the aircraft. From the early 1980s, Army-operated Gazelles were fitted with the Gazelle Observation Aid, a gyro-stabilised sight to match their target finding capability with that of the Lynx. The type also had a limited, special operations aviation role with 8 Flight Army Air Corps The type was also frequently used to perform airborne patrols in Northern Ireland. On 17 February 1978, a British Army Gazelle crashed near Jonesborough, County Armagh, after coming under fire from the Provisional IRA during a ground skirmish. During the Falklands War, the Gazelle played a valuable role operating from the flight decks of Royal Navy ships. Under a rapidly performed crash programme specifically for the Falklands conflict, Gazelles were fitted with 68mm SNEB rocket pods and various other optional equipment such as armour plating, flotation gear and folding blade mechanisms. Two Royal Marines Gazelles were shot down on the first day of the landings at San Carlos Water. In a high-profile incident of friendly fire on 6 June 1982, an Army Air Corps Gazelle was mistaken for a low-flying Argentine C-130 Hercules and was shot down by HMS Cardiff', a British Type 42 destroyer. The Gazelle also operated in reconnaissance and liaison roles during the War in Afghanistan. In 2007, it was reported that, while many British helicopters had struggled with the conditions of the Afghan and Iraqi theatres, the Gazelle was the "best performing model" with roughly 80% being available for planned operations. Various branches of the British military have operated Gazelles in other theatres, such as during the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq and in the 1999 intervention in Kosovo. In 2009, the Army Air Corps was the sole operator of the Gazelle with approximately 40 in service with a planned out of service date in 2012. In October 2009, it was announced that the out of service date had been extended to support domestic commitments including to the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) until 2018 at which point the PSNI was to have their own assets. In July 2016, the Ministry of Defence announced that the Gazelle would remain in service until 2025 taking the Gazelle past its 50th anniversary in UK military service and making it the oldest helicopter in active UK inventory. The Gazelle is operated by 29 (BATUS) Flight AAC in Canada supporting the Suffield training site, 665 Squadron AAC in Northern Ireland with aerial surveillance tasks and at the Army Aviation Centre by 7 (Training) Regiment AAC Conversion Flight and 667 (Development & Trials) Squadron AAC. In 2018 and 2019, the Ministry of Defence awarded contracts to sustain the fleet until 2022 with the option of an extension in 2025. In 2019, the Army Air Corps had a fleet of 32 Gazelles with 19 in service. It was announced in January 2022 that the rest of the British Army's Gazelles will be phased out by March 2024 to be replaced by Airbus Helicopters H135. Yugoslavia On 27 June 1991, during the Ten Day War in Slovenia, a Yugoslav Air Force Gazelle helicopter was shot down by a man-portable 9K32 Strela-2 surface-to-air missile over Ljubljana, the first aircraft to be lost during the breakup of Yugoslavia. The Gazelles would see further action in the subsequent Yugoslav Wars, particularly in Bosnia where Republika Srpska Air Force conducted many operations with only five Gazelles lost, and the Kosovo War; as Yugoslavia dissolved, the various successor states would inherit the SOKO-built Gazelles and continue to operate them, such as the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbian Air Force and Montenegro Air Force. Lebanon In 1980-81, the Lebanese Air Force received from France ten SA 342K/L and SA 341H Gazelles equipped for anti-tank and utility roles, respectively, to equip its newly raised 8th attack squadron at Beirut Air Base. Initially based at the latter location, in 1983 the squadron was relocated north of the Lebanese capital, with the Gazelles being dispersed in small improvised helipads around Jounieh and Adma for security reasons, where one of the helicopters may have been damaged in a failed takeoff. In 1988, a Lebanese Air Force pilot, the Druze Lieutenant Majed Karameh, defected from Adma airfield and flew a SA 342K attack helicopter to the Druze-controlled Chouf District, where it was apprehended by Druze People's Liberation Army (PLA) upon landing and transported by a PLA MAZ-537G tank transporter to the Saïd el-Khateeb Barracks at Hammana in the Baabda District. This particular helicopter appears to have never been used in combat by the PLA (since they had no aviation component, and therefore lacked the technically-proficient personnel to help fly and maintain the captured airframe), which ended up being simply placed on storage at Hammana for the remainder of the Civil War. Employed extensively in the gunship role by providing close air support to General Michel Aoun's troops during the final phase of the Lebanese Civil War, combat losses and maintenance problems reduced the Gazelle fleet to just four operational helicopters by 1990, with three of the machines reportedly being apprehended by the Lebanese Forces militia who illegally sold them to Serbia in 1991. After the War, the Lebanese Air Force Command made consistent efforts to rebuild its attack helicopter squadron with the help of the United Arab Emirates and nine SA 342L Gazelles formerly in service with the United Arab Emirates Air Force were delivered in 2007. Due to budgetary constraints, the majority of the Gazelles operated by the Lebanese Air Force have often been kept in storage outside of times of conflict. The Gazelles saw combat against the Al Qaeda-inspired Fatah al-Islam militants during the 2007 Lebanon conflict. Rocket-armed Gazelles were used to strike insurgent bunkers during the brief conflict. In 2010, a French government official stated that France had offered to provide up to 100 HOT missiles to Lebanon for the Gazelle helicopters. According to reports, France may also provide additional Gazelles to Lebanon. Morocco In January 1981, France and Morocco entered into a $4 billion military procurement deal in which, amongst other vehicles and equipment, 24 Gazelle helicopters were to be delivered to Morocco. The Royal Moroccan Air Force operated these Gazelles, which were equipped with a mix of anti-tank missiles and other ground attack munitions, and made frequent use of the aircraft during battles with Polisario insurgents in the western Sahara region. The reconnaissance capabilities of the Gazelle were instrumental in finding and launching attacks upon insurgent camps due to their mobility. Rwanda In 1990, following appeals from Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana for French support in interethnic conflict against the Tutsi Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), nine armed Gazelles were exported to Rwanda in 1992. The Gazelles would see considerable use in the conflict that became known as the Rwandan Civil War, capable of strafing enemy positions as well as performing reconnaissance patrols of Northern Rwanda; in October 1992, a single Gazelle destroyed a column of ten RPF units. According to author Andrew Wallis, the Gazelle gunships helped to stop significant RPF advances and led to a major change in RPF tactics towards guerrilla warfare. In 1994, French forces dispatched as a part of Opération Turquoise, a United Nations-mandated intervention in the conflict, also operated a number of Gazelles in the theatre. Egypt As part of a major international initiative formalised in 1975 to build up Arab military industries, Egypt commenced widescale efforts to replace arms imports with domestic production to provide military equipment to the rest of the Middle East, other Arab partner nations included Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar. Both France and Britain would form large agreements with Egypt; in March 1978, the Arab British Helicopter Company (ABHCO) was formally established in a $595 million deal with Westland Helicopters, initially for the purpose of domestically assembly of British Westland Lynx helicopters. An initial order for 42 Gazelles was placed in mid-1975. In the 1980s, ABHCO performed the assembly of a significant number of Gazelles; the British Arab Engine Company also produced engines for Egyptian-build Gazelles. Mozambique In 2021, three Gazelle helicopters played a significant role in the Battle of Palma, providing air support at the behest of the Mozambique security forces battling the insurgents and evacuating civilians and contractors from the besieged town. Variants SA 340 First prototype, first flown on 7 April 1967 with a conventional Alouette type tail rotor. SA 341 Four pre-production machines. First flown on 2 August 1968. The third was equipped to British Army requirements and assembled in France as the prototype Gazelle AH.1. This was first flown on 28 April 1970. SA 341.1001 First French production machine. Initial test flight 6 August 1971. Featured a longer cabin, an enlarged tail unit and an uprated Turbomeca Astazou IIIA engine. SA 341B (Westland Gazelle AH.1) Version built for the British Army; Featured the Astazou IIIN2 engine, capable of operating a nightsun searchlight, later fitted with radio location via ARC 340 radio and modified to fire 68mm SNEB rockets. First Westland-assembled version flown on 31 January 1972, this variant entered service on 6 July 1974. A total of 158 were produced. A small number were also operated by the Fleet Air Arm in support of the Royal Marines. SA 341C (Westland Gazelle HT.2) Training helicopter version built for British Fleet Air Arm; Features included the Astazou IIIN2 engine, a stability augmentation system and a hoist. First flown on 6 July 1972, this variant entered operational service on 10 December 1974. A total of 30 were produced. SA 341D (Westland Gazelle HT.3) Training helicopter version built for British Royal Air Force; Featuring the same engine and stability system as the 341C, this version was first delivered on 16 July 1973. A total of 14 were produced. SA 341E (Westland Gazelle HCC.4) Communications helicopter version built for British Royal Air Force; Only one example of this variant was produced. SA 341F Version built for the French Army; Featuring the Astazou IIIC engine, 166 of these were produced. Some of these were fitted with an M621 20-mm cannon. SA 341G Civil variant, powered by an Astazou IIIA engine. Officially certificated on 7 June 1972; subsequently became first helicopter to obtain single-pilot IFR Cat 1 approval in the US. Also developed into "Stretched Gazelle" with the cabin modified to allow an additional 8 inches (20cm) legroom for the rear passengers. SA 341H Military export variant, powered by an Astazou IIIB engine. Built under licence agreement signed on 1 October 1971 by SOKO in Yugoslavia. SOKO HO-42 Yugoslav-built version of SA 341H. SOKO HI-42 Hera Yugoslav-built scout version of SA 341H. SOKO HS-42 Yugoslav-built medic version of SA 341H. SOKO HN-42M Gama Yugoslav-built attack version of SA 341H. The name is derived from the abbreviation of Gazelle and Malyutka anti-tank missile, Soviet-designed, but locally produced variant of the missile. SOKO HN-45M Gama 2 Yugoslav-built attack version of SA 342L. SA 342J Civil version of SA 342L. This was fitted with the more powerful 649 kW (870 shp) Astazou XIV engine and an improved Fenestron tail rotor. With an increased take-off weight, this variant was approved on 24 April 1976, and entered service in 1977. SA 342K Military export version for "hot and dry areas". Fitted with the more powerful 649-kW (870-shp) Astazou XIV engine and shrouds over the air intakes. First flown on 11 May 1973; initially sold to Kuwait. SA 342L Military companion of the SA 342J. fitted with the Astazou XIV engine. Adaptable for many armaments and equipment, including six Euromissile HOT anti-tank missiles. SA 342M French Army anti-tank version fitted with the Astazou XIV engine. Armed with four Euromissile HOT missiles and a SFIM APX M397 stabilised sight. SA 342M1 SA 342M retrofitted with three Ecureuil main blades to improve performance. SA 349 Experimental aircraft, outfitted with stub wings. Operators Angola Angolan Air Force 21st Transportation Helicopter Regiment - 1st Helicopter Squadron 22nd Combat Helicopter Regiment - 3rd Helicopter Squadron Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosnian and Herzegovinian Air Force Burundi Burundi Army Cameroon Cameroon Air Force Two SA342L helicopters (reg. TJ-XBE and TJ-XBF) Central African Republic Central African Republic Air Force Two ex-Yugoslavian SA341G helicopters (reg. TL-WJU and TL-WJV) operating for the Wagner Group in CAR Cyprus Cyprus Air Forces Ecuador Ecuadorian Army Egypt Egyptian Air Force 548 Air Wing 10, 15 and 17 Squadrons Eswatini Umbutfo Eswatini Defence Force A single Gazelle AH.1 acquired in 2006 (reg. 3DC-HGZ) France French Army Gabon Gabon Air Force Iraq Iraqi Air Force Kuwait Kuwait Air Force Lebanon Lebanese Air Force Malawi Malawian Defence Force Two Gazelles (reg. MDFAW-H20 and MDFAW-H21) seen active in 2016 Morocco Royal Moroccan Air Force Niger Niger Air Force: received three refurbished SA342L-1s from France in 2013 Qatar Qatar Emiri Air Force Rwanda Rwandan Air Force Serbia Serbian Air Force Police of Serbia Syria Syrian Air Force Tunisia Tunisian Air Force United Kingdom Army Air Corps Retired Chad Chadian Air Force Two SA341G helicopters acquired in 1974 (reg. TT-OAF and TT-OAG), returned to SNIAS in 1976 China People's Liberation Army Ireland Irish Air Corps Bosnia and Herzegovina: Republika Srpska Air Force Montenegro Montenegrin Air Force United Kingdom Royal Air Force Royal Navy Yugoslavia Yugoslav Air Force Specifications (SA 341G) Data from Jane's all the World's Aircraft 1978-79 General characteristics Crew: 1 or 2 Capacity: up to 3 or 4 passengers Length: 11.97 m (39 ft 3 in) including rotor Height: 3.15 m (10 ft 4 in) overall; 2.72 m (8 ft 11 in) to top of rotor hub Empty weight: 917 kg (2,022 lb) Max takeoff weight: 1,800 kg (3,968 lb) Fuel capacity: 735 l (194 US gal; 162 imp gal) Oil :13 l (3.4 US gal; 2.9 imp gal) for engine :3.5 l (0.92 US gal; 0.77 imp gal) for gearbox Powerplant: 1 × Turbomeca Astazou IIIA turboshaft, 440 kW (590 hp) Main rotor diameter: 10.5 m (34 ft 5 in) Main rotor area: 86.5 m2 (931 sq ft) NACA 0012 section Performance Maximum speed: 310 km/h (190 mph, 170 kn) at sea level Cruise speed: 264 km/h (164 mph, 143 kn) max cruise at sea level economical cruise speed: 233 km/h (145 mph; 126 kn) Range: 361 km (224 mi, 195 nmi) at sea level with maximum fuel Range with pilot and 500 kg (1,100 lb): 233 km (145 mi; 126 nmi) Service ceiling: 5,000 m (16,000 ft) Hover ceiling IGE: 2,850 m (9,350 ft) Hover ceiling OGE: 2,000 m (6,600 ft) Rate of climb: 9 m/s (1,800 ft/min) max at sea level Disk loading: 19.5 kg/m2 (4.0 lb/sq ft) Armament Guns: 2x forward-firing 7.62 mm (0.300 in) machine-guns (optional) Rockets: Matra or Brandt 2.75 in (70 mm) or 68 mm (2.7 in) rocket pods (optional) Missiles: 4x AS.11 or 2x AS.12 wire-guided missiles; 4x or 6x Euromissile HOT (optional) Avionics UHF, VHF, and HF radios; navigation equipment such as VOR and TACAN; Standard blind flying instruments Aircraft on display There are a large number of Gazelles preserved. In the UK, the following Gazelles are in preservation, either in museums or as "gate guards" at various facilities: XW276 Aerospatiale SA.341 Gazelle, preserved at Newark Air Museum - this aircraft is the prototype Gazelle flown to Britain for evaluation and testing by Westland Helicopters Ltd and the Army Air Corps XW844 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Vector Aerospace Fleetlands XW855 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HCC.4, preserved at RAF Museum Hendon XW863 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HT.2, preserved at Farnborough Air Sciences Trust XW890 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HT.2, preserved at RNAS Yeovilton XX380 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved as a gate guard at Wattisham Airfield XX381 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Defence Sixth Form College Welbeck XX392 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at AAC Middle Wallop XX411 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at South Yorkshire Air Museum XX444 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Wattisham Airfield Museum XX457 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at East Midlands Aeropark XZ337 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at MOD Defence Equipment and Support headquarters at Abbey Wood XZ346 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at AAC Middle Wallop ZA737 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Museum of Army Flying, AAC Middle Wallop ZB670 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Taunton Army Reserve Centre, home of 675 (The Rifles) Squadron AAC ZB672 Westland WA.341 Gazelle AH.1, preserved at Army Technical Foundation, Winchester G-SFTA Westland WA.341G Gazelle Srs.1, preserved at North East Aircraft Museum A further British Gazelle is preserved in Canada: XZ942 Westland WA.341 Gazelle HT.2, preserved at AAC Suffield A former Jugoslav Army example is preserved in Slovenia: TO-001 SOKO SA341H Gazelle, c/n 157, ex-JLV '12660', preserved at the Pivka Park of Military History Related development Aérospatiale Alouette III Blue Thunder (helicopter) Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Bell OH-58 Kiowa Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama SA 315B Lama Role - Utility helicopter National origin - France Manufacturer - Aérospatiale / Helibras / Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) First flight - 17 March 1969 Introduction - July 1971 Status - In service Primary users - Indian Army / Afghan Air Force Developed from - Aérospatiale Alouette II The Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama is a French single-engined helicopter developed to meet hot and high operational requirements of the Indian Armed Forces. It combines the lighter Aérospatiale Alouette II airframe with Alouette III components and powerplant. The Lama possesses exceptional high altitude performance. The helicopters have been built under licence by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India, known as the Cheetah; HAL later developed an upgraded variant, powered by the Turbomeca TM 333-2M2 engine, which is known as the Cheetal. An armed version, marketed as the Lancer, was also produced by HAL. It was also built under licence by Helibras in Brazil as the Gavião. Design and development The SA 315B Lama was originally designed to meet a Nepalese Army Air Service and Indian Air Force requirement for a rotorcraft capable of undertaking operations at hot and high conditions. Both countries possessed extreme mountain ranges in the form of the Himalayas in which even relatively powerful medium-sized helicopters could not be effectively operated within, thus there was an expressed desire for an aerial vehicle capable of operating in this challenging environment. To achieve the desired performance, Aerospatiale elected to combine elements of two existing popular helicopters in their inventory, the Aérospatiale Alouette II and the Aérospatiale Alouette III to produce a new rotorcraft specialised for high altitude performance. Specifically, the new helicopter, named Lama, was equipped with the Alouette III's Turbomeca Artouste turboshaft powerplant and its dynamic systems, and was furnished with a reinforced version of the Alouette II's airframe. On 17 March 1969, the first SA 315B, powered by an Artouste IIB engine, undertook its maiden flight. On 30 September 1970, the type received its airworthiness certificate, and it was introduced to operational service in July 1971. Due to its favourable high altitude performance, the Lama quickly became popular with operators worldwide, often being deployed within mountainous environments. As with the Alouette series, the type can be fitted for various roles, such as light passenger transport, agricultural tasks, oil-and-gas exploration, aerial firefighting, and other specialised duties. The military variants of the Lama include liaison, observation, photography, air/sea rescue, transport and ambulance duties. The SA315B is particularly suited to mountainous areas due to its performance and can carry underslung loads of up to 1000 kg (2,205 lb). By December 1976, 191 Lamas had been ordered by 68 operators. A significant number of SA 315B Lamas were manufactured under licence in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), under the name Cheetah. More than three decades after production in India began, HAL was still receiving export orders for the original Cheetah. Along with the Alouette III, the Cheetah was a key product for HAL; experience from manufacturing the type aided in the later development of more advanced indigenous helicopters such as the HAL Dhruv. During the 1990s, HAL developed an armed light attack helicopter based upon the Cheetah, which was given the name Lancer. In 2006, HAL proposed a modernised variant to the Indian Army, designated as Cheetal, the principal change of which was the adoption of a modern, more powerful Turbomeca TM 333-2M2 powerplant in the place of the Artouste; HAL promoting the Cheetal's capabilities for operating in high altitude environments, such as the Siachen Glacier. Other improvements include new warning indicates, a cockpit voice recorder, flight monitoring system, artificial horizon, and modernised electronics. In 2006, an initial 10 Cheetals were ordered by the Indian Air Force. In February 2013, it was announced that the Indian and Nepalese Armies had signed a 300 crore (~US$55 million) contract for the urgent procurement of a further 20 Cheetals. Operational history The Lama was developed specifically to provide a rotorcraft with exceptional high-altitude performance. In practice, the type found considerable use within regions that possessed extensive mountain ranges, such as South America and India, being capable of lifting loads and deploying personnel in areas that had been previously impossible to have otherwise achieved. During 1969, a series of early demonstration flights involving the SA 315B were performed in the Himalayas; during one such flight, a single rotorcraft carrying a crew of two and 120 kg of fuel landed and then took off at what was then the highest altitude to be recorded, 7,500 m (24,605 ft). On 21 June 1972, a Lama with a single pilot (Jean Boulet) aboard established a helicopter absolute altitude record of 12,442 m (40,814 ft), a record which still stands as of June 2022. During the same flight, the Lama's engine flamed out at the peak altitude of the flight, which led to an inadvertent record being set for the longest ever autorotation after which the rotorcraft was brought to a safe unpowered landing. Days before, the same pilot and aircraft had set a similar record at a higher weight. Following in the aftermath of the records set by the helicopter, a major order was placed by the Indian government in 1971. The Indian order included an arrangement for the indefinite licence production of the SA 315B to be conducted by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) at their facility in Bangalore, India. The first Indian-assembled SA 315B flew on 6 October 1972, with deliveries starting in December 1973; Indian-produced helicopters were given the name Cheetah. Operated by both the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army's Aviation Corps, the Cheetah have proved capable, operating in difficult and remote areas such the mountainous Siachen region, and during times of conflict with neighbouring Pakistan. Cheetahs have also been operated for civil purposes, such as aerial agriculture. HAL-built Lamas have also been procured by neighbouring Nepal for military use. Sales have included a quantity of an armed variant, marketed as the HAL Lancer; one batch was reportedly delivered to Nepal between June 2003 and September 2004. The sale of Lancers to Nepal encountered international controversy due to allegations that these rotorcraft have participated in combat operations against members of the Communist Party of Nepal during the Nepalese Civil War. In addition to India, other countries have participated in licence production activities. In 1978, an export agreement was reached with Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Helibras, under which it would perform domestic assembly of the Lama. Such Helibras-produced SA 315Bs were marketed under the designation Gavião; several examples of which were successfully exported to neighboring Bolivia. In later life, the Lama's commercial appeal waned in favour of the newer Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil, which had lower maintenance requirements and was capable of higher speeds but incapable of equalling the Lama's high altitude performance. The type remained in commercial service into the 21st century, being only slowly retired as it typically continued to be adequate for its given tasks. According to Vertical Magazine, popular qualities of the Lama included its capable engine, favourable stability while hovering, and its ability to effectively convey payloads at altitude even during peak temperatures. In 2009, due to issues with the newly introduced HAL Dhruv helicopter, the Indian Army increased operational usage of their older Cheetah/Cheetal rotorcraft to meet the temporary shortfall. In September 2012, it was reported that an ever-decreasing amount of spare parts compatible with the Cheetah has led to the type's operators being required to cannibalise helicopters in order to provide components for others. In August 2016, it was reported that No. 114 Helicopter Unit were keen to introduce the upgraded Cheetal as a replacement for its existing Cheetah rotorcraft for continuous deployment on the Siachen Glacier. Variants SA 315B Lama Derived from the SE 3150, it was designed for high altitude operations using a 650 kW (870 hp) Turbomeca Astazou IIIB turboshaft, derated to 410 kW (550shp). This derivative still holds the absolute altitude record for all types of helicopters since 1972: 12,442 m. HB 315B Gaviao Brazilian licence-built version of the SA 315B Lama. HAL Cheetah Indian licence-built version of the SA 315B Lama. HAL Lancer Modified armed combat variant. Changes include composite armouring, toughened glass, and gun sights. Armaments include two jettisonable weapons pods, each of which contains a single 12.7-mm machine gun and up to three 70-mm rockets. HAL Cheetal Modernised variant, fitted with the Turbomeca TM333-2M2. Speed is increased to 210 km/h (130 mph) and range is increased to 560 km (350 mi). Operators Afghanistan Afghan Air Force Argentina Argentine Air Force Argentine Army Ecuador Ecuadorian Army India Indian Army Namibia Namibian Air Force Pakistan Pakistan Army Togo Togolese Air Force Former operators Angola Angolan Air Defence Force Argentina National Gendarmerie Bolivia Bolivian Air Force Chile Chilean Army Ecuador Ecuadorian Air Force El Salvador Air Force of El Salvador India Indian Air Force Morocco Royal Moroccan Gendarmerie Nepal Nepal Army Peru Peruvian Army Specifications (SA 315B Lama) Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1982-83 General characteristics Crew: 1 Capacity: 4 passengers or 1,135 kg (2,500 lb) slung payload Length: 10.24 m (33 ft 7.25 in) Height: 3.09 m (10 ft 1.75 in) Empty weight: 1,021 kg (2,251 lb) Gross weight: 2,300 kg (5,070 lb) Powerplant: 1 × Turbomeca Artouste IIIB turboshaft , 649 kW (870 hp) derated to 410 kW (550 hp) Main rotor diameter: 11.02 m (36 ft 1.75 in) Main rotor area: 95.38 m2 (1,026 sq ft) Performance Maximum speed: 192 km/h (119 mph, 103 kn) Range: 515 km (320 mi, 280 nmi) Service ceiling: 5,400 m (17,715 ft) Rate of climb: 5.5 m/s (1,080 ft/min) Related development Aérospatiale Alouette II Aérospatiale Alouette III Aérospatiale Ludion SA-610 Ludion Role - VTOL research aircraft National origin - France Manufacturer - Sud Aviation / Aérospatiale First flight - 1967 The Sud Aviation/Aérospatiale SA-610 Ludion (Ludion - Cadet) was a tiny, unorthodox VTOL aircraft demonstrated at the 1967 Paris Air Show. It consisted of little more than a chair, behind which were mounted two downward-pointing augmented rocket engines with control provided by thrust vectoring. The Ludion was intended to carry its pilot and 30 kg (66 lb) of equipment up to 700 m (2,300 ft) at an altitude of up to 200 m (600 ft). The unusual powerplant consisted of a monofuel de-composition chamber fed with pressurised isopropyl nitrate (AVPIN), ignited by a catalyst. The high pressure gasses produced in the de-composition chamber were fed to two augmentor tubes, built by Bertin, either side of the pilots seat, angled slightly outwards. As the gasses entered the augmentor tubes through rocket nozzles, thrust was augmented by inducing airflow through the ducts which acted as aero-thermo-dynamic ducts, due to the heat and kinetic energy added to the flow through the ducts, and the carefully shaped exhaust nozzles. Specifications (SA-610 Ludion) Data from General characteristics Crew: 1 Capacity: payload 30 kg (66 lb) Length: 1.95 m (6 ft 5 in) Width: 1.485 m (4 ft 10 in) Height: 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in) Empty weight: 90 kg (198 lb) Gross weight: 170 kg (375 lb) approx Powerplant: 1 × SEPR S178 isopropyl nitrate (AVPIN) decomposition gas generator with augmentor tubes Performance700 m (2,297 ft) Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Lunar Landing Research Vehicle Rolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig VFW SG 1262 Schwebegestell Concorde (Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde) Concorde Role - Supersonic airliner National origin - United Kingdom and France Manufacturer - British Aircraft Corporation (later British Aerospace and BAE Systems) / Sud Aviation (later Aérospatiale and Airbus) First flight - 2 March 1969 Introduction - 21 January 1976 Retired - 24 October 2003 / Final flight worldwide 26 November 2003, Filton, Bristol, UK Primary users - British Airways / Air France Produced - 1965-1979 Number built - 20 (including 6 non-commercial aircraft) The Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde (/ˈkɒŋkɔːrd/) is a Franco-British supersonic airliner jointly developed and manufactured by Sud Aviation (later Aérospatiale) and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC). Studies started in 1954, and France and the UK signed a treaty establishing the development project on 29 November 1962, as the programme cost was estimated at £70 million (£1.39 billion in 2021). Construction of the six prototypes began in February 1965, and the first flight took off from Toulouse on 2 March 1969. The market was predicted for 350 aircraft, and the manufacturers received up to 100 option orders from many major airlines. On 9 October 1975, it received its French Certificate of Airworthiness, and from the UK CAA on 5 December. Concorde is a tailless aircraft design with a narrow fuselage permitting a 4-abreast seating for 92 to 128 passengers, an ogival delta wing and a droop nose for landing visibility. It is powered by four Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojets with variable engine intake ramps, and reheat for take-off and acceleration to supersonic speed. Constructed out of aluminium, it was the first airliner to have analogue fly-by-wire flight controls. The airliner could maintain a supercruise up to Mach 2.04 (2,167 km/h; 1,170 kn) at an altitude of 60,000 ft (18.3 km). Delays and cost overruns increased the programme cost to £1.5-2.1 billion in 1976, (£9.44 billion-13.2 billion in 2021). Concorde entered service on 21 January of that year with Air France from Paris-Roissy and British Airways from London Heathrow. Transatlantic flights was the main market, to Washington Dulles from 24 May, and to New York JFK from 17 October 1977. Air France and British Airways remained the sole customers with seven airframes each, for a total production of twenty. Supersonic flight more than halved travel times, but sonic booms over the ground limited it to transoceanic flights only. Its only competitor was the Tupolev Tu-144, carrying passengers from November 1977 until a May 1978 crash, while the larger and faster Boeing 2707 was cancelled in 1971. On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590 crashed shortly after take-off with all 109 occupants and four on ground killed; the only fatal incident involving Concorde. Commercial service was suspended until November 2001, and Concorde aircraft were retired in 2003 after 27 years of commercial operations. Most aircraft are on display in Europe and America. Development Early studies The origins of the Concorde project date to the early 1950s, when Arnold Hall, director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), asked Morien Morgan to form a committee to study the supersonic transport (SST) concept. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955. At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. This led to the use of short-span, thin trapezoidal wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles, or in aircraft such as the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter or the Avro 730 that the team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that resembled an enlarged Avro 730. This same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes" resulted. Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics. Slender deltas Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform, known in the UK as the "slender delta" concept. The team, including Eric Maskell whose report "Flow Separation in Three Dimensions" contributed to an understanding of the physical nature of separated flow, worked with the fact that delta wings can produce strong vortices on their upper surfaces at high angles of attack. The vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly increased. This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, but its qualities had not been fully appreciated. Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect could be used deliberately to improve low speed performance. Küchemann's and Weber's papers changed the entire nature of supersonic design almost overnight. Although the delta had already been used on aircraft prior to this point, these designs used planforms that were not much different from a swept wing of the same span. Weber noted that the lift from the vortex was increased by the length of the wing it had to operate over, which suggested that the effect would be maximised by extending the wing along the fuselage as far as possible. Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance inherent to the short span, while also offering reasonable take-off and landing speeds using vortex generation. The only downside to such a design is that the aircraft would have to take off and land very "nose high" to generate the required vortex lift, which led to questions about the low speed handling qualities of such a design. It would also need to have long landing gear to produce the required angle of attack while still on the runway. Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present. Test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgan's reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem. Brown considers this moment as being the true birth of the Concorde project. Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee On 1 October 1956 the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee (STAC) (sometimes referred to as the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee), with the explicit goal of developing a practical SST design and finding industry partners to build it. At the first meeting, on 5 November 1956, the decision was made to fund the development of a test bed aircraft to examine the low-speed performance of the slender delta, a contract that eventually produced the Handley Page HP.115. This aircraft would ultimately demonstrate safe control at speeds as low as 69 mph (111 km/h), about 1/3 that of the F-104 Starfighter. STAC stated that an SST would have economic performance similar to existing subsonic types. A significant problem is that lift is not generated the same way at supersonic and subsonic speeds, with the lift-to-drag ratio for supersonic designs being about half that of subsonic designs. This means the aircraft would have to use more power than a subsonic design of the same size. But although they would burn more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly more sorties in a given period of time, so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route. This would remain economically advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs, as it did at the time. STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work, a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2, and a shorter-range version flying at Mach 1.2 perhaps. Morgan suggested that a 150-passenger transatlantic SST would cost about £75 to £90 million to develop, and be in service in 1970. The smaller 100 passenger short-range version would cost perhaps £50 to £80 million, and be ready for service in 1968. To meet this schedule, development would need to begin in 1960, with production contracts let in 1962. Morgan strongly suggested that the U.S. was already involved in a similar project, and that if the UK failed to respond it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST aircraft. In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley and Bristol for preliminary designs based on the slender delta concept, which developed as the HSA.1000 and Bristol 198. Armstrong Whitworth also responded with an internal design, the M-Wing, for the lower-speed shorter-range category. Even at this early time, both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs. In September 1959, Hawker approached Lockheed, and after the creation of British Aircraft Corporation in 1960, the former Bristol team immediately started talks with Boeing, General Dynamics, Douglas Aircraft, and Sud Aviation. Ogee planform selected Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work on the slender delta throughout this period, considering three basic shapes; the classic straight-edge delta, the "gothic delta" that was rounded outward to appear like a gothic arch, and the "ogival wing" that was compound-rounded into the shape of an ogee. Each of these planforms had its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of aerodynamics. As they worked with these shapes, a practical concern grew to become so important that it forced selection of one of these designs. Generally one wants to have the wing's centre of pressure (CP, or "lift point") close to the aircraft's centre of gravity (CG, or "balance point") to reduce the amount of control force required to pitch the aircraft. As the aircraft layout changes during the design phase, it is common for the CG to move fore or aft. With a normal wing design this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore or aft to account for this. With a delta wing running most of the length of the fuselage, this was no longer easy; moving the wing would leave it in front of the nose or behind the tail. Studying the various layouts in terms of CG changes, both during design and changes due to fuel use during flight, the ogee planform immediately came to the fore. While the wing planform was evolving, so was the basic SST concept. Bristol's original Type 198 was a small design with an almost pure slender delta wing, but evolved into the larger Type 223. To test the new wing, NASA privately assisted the team by modifying a Douglas F5D Skylancer with temporary wing modifications to mimic the wing selection. In 1965 the NASA test aircraft successfully tested the wing, and found that it reduced landing speeds noticeably over the standard delta wing. NASA Ames test center also ran simulations that showed the aircraft would suffer a sudden change in pitch when entering ground effect. Ames test pilots later participated in a joint cooperative test with the French and British test pilots and found that the simulations had been correct, and this information was added to pilot training. Partnership with Sud Aviation By this time similar political and economic concerns in France had led to their own SST plans. In the late 1950s the government requested designs from both the government-owned Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation, as well as Dassault. All three returned designs based on Küchemann and Weber's slender delta; Nord suggested a ramjet powered design flying at Mach 3, the other two were jet powered Mach 2 designs that were similar to each other. Of the three, the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle won the design contest with a medium-range design deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs they assumed were already on the drawing board. As soon as the design was complete, in April 1960, Pierre Satre, the company's technical director, was sent to Bristol to discuss a partnership. Bristol was surprised to find that the Sud team had designed a similar aircraft after considering the SST problem and coming to the very same conclusions as the Bristol and STAC teams in terms of economics. It was later revealed that the original STAC report, marked "For UK Eyes Only", had secretly been passed to the French to win political favour. Sud made minor changes to the paper, and presented it as their own work. Unsurprisingly, the two teams found much to agree on. The French had no modern large jet engines, and had already concluded they would buy a British design anyway (as they had on the earlier subsonic Caravelle). As neither company had experience in the use of high-heat metals for airframes, a maximum speed of around Mach 2 was selected so aluminium could be used - above this speed the friction with the air warms the metal so much that aluminium begins to soften. This lower speed would also speed development and allow their design to fly before the Americans. Finally, everyone involved agreed that Küchemann's ogee shaped wing was the right one. The only disagreements were over the size and range. The UK team was still focused on a 150-passenger design serving transatlantic routes, while the French were deliberately avoiding these. However, this proved not to be the barrier it might seem; common components could be used in both designs, with the shorter range version using a clipped fuselage and four engines, the longer one with a stretched fuselage and six engines, leaving only the wing to be extensively re-designed. The teams continued to meet through 1961, and by this time it was clear that the two aircraft would be considerably more similar in spite of different range and seating arrangements. A single design emerged that differed mainly in fuel load. More powerful Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines, being developed for the TSR-2, allowed either design to be powered by only four engines. Cabinet response, treaty While the development teams met, French Minister of Public Works and Transport Robert Buron was meeting with the UK Minister of Aviation Peter Thorneycroft, and Thorneycroft soon revealed to the cabinet that the French were much more serious about a partnership than any of the U.S. companies. The various U.S. companies had proved uninterested in such a venture, likely due to the belief that the government would be funding development and would frown on any partnership with a European company, and the risk of "giving away" U.S. technological leadership to a European partner. When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet, a negative reaction resulted. The economic considerations were considered highly questionable, especially as these were based on development costs, now estimated to be £150 million, which were repeatedly overrun in the industry. The Treasury Ministry in particular presented a very negative view, suggesting that there was no way the project would have any positive financial returns for the government, especially in light that "the industry's past record of over-optimistic estimating (including the recent history of the TSR.2) suggests that it would be prudent to consider the £150 million [cost] to turn out much too low." This concern led to an independent review of the project by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research and Development, which met on topic between July and September 1962. The Committee ultimately rejected the economic arguments, including considerations of supporting the industry made by Thorneycroft. Their report in October stated that it was unlikely there would be any direct positive economic outcome, but that the project should still be considered for the simple reason that everyone else was going supersonic, and they were concerned they would be locked out of future markets. Conversely, it appeared the project would not be likely to significantly affect other, more important, research efforts. After considerable argument, the decision to proceed ultimately fell to an unlikely political expediency. At the time, the UK was pressing for admission to the European Economic Community, and this became the main rationale for moving ahead with the aircraft. The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and included a clause, originally asked for by the UK government, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. This treaty was signed on 29 November 1962. Charles De Gaulle would soon veto the UK's entry into the European Community in a speech on 25 January 1963. Naming Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments that led to Concorde's construction, the name Concorde is from the French word concorde (IPA: [kɔ̃kɔʁd]), which has an English equivalent, concord. Both words mean agreement, harmony, or union. The name was officially changed to Concord by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle. At the French roll-out in Toulouse in late 1967, the British Government Minister of Technology, Tony Benn, announced that he would change the spelling back to Concorde. This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe, and Entente (Cordiale)". In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "[Y]ou talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, "[I]t was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland) - and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!" Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" without an article, rather than "the Concorde" or "a Concorde". Sales efforts Described by Flight International as an "aviation icon" and "one of aerospace's most ambitious but commercially flawed projects", Concorde failed to meet its original sales targets, despite initial interest from several airlines. At first, the new consortium intended to produce one long-range and one short-range version. However, prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped. A two page advertisement for Concorde ran in the 29 May 1967 issue of Aviation Week & Space Technology which predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980 and boasted of Concorde's head start over the United States' SST project. Concorde had considerable difficulties that led to its dismal sales performance. Costs had spiralled during development to more than six times the original projections, arriving at a unit cost of £23 million in 1977 (equivalent to £152.02 million in 2021). Its sonic boom made travelling supersonically over land impossible without causing complaints from citizens. World events had also dampened Concorde sales prospects, the 1973-74 stock market crash and the 1973 oil crisis had made many airlines cautious about aircraft with high fuel consumption rates; and new wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, had recently made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk option for airlines. While carrying a full load, Concorde achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel, while the Boeing 707 reached 33.3 pm/g, the Boeing 747 46.4 pm/g, and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 53.6 pm/g. An emerging trend in the industry in favour of cheaper airline tickets had also caused airlines such as Qantas to question Concorde's market suitability. The consortium received orders, i.e., non-binding options, for more than 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC, and Air France were the launch customers, with six Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air India, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore Airlines, Iran Air, Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC Airlines, Middle East Airlines, and TWA. At the time of the first flight the options list contained 74 options from 16 airlines: Airline - Number - Reserved - Cancelled - Remarks Pan Am - 6 - 3 June 1963 - 31 January 1973 - 2 extra options in 1964 Air France - 6 - 3 June 1963 - - 2 extra options in 1964 BOAC - 6 - 3 June 1963 - - 2 extra options in 1964 Continental Airlines - 3 - 24 July 1963 - Mar 1973 - American Airlines - 4 - 7 October 1963 - Feb 1973 - 2 extra options in 1965 TWA - 4 - 16 October 1963 - 31 January 1973 - 2 extra options in 1965 Middle East Airlines - 2 - 4 December 1963 - Feb 1973 - Qantas - 6 - 19 March 1964 - June 1973 - 2 cancelled in May 1966 Air India - 2 - 15 July 1964 - Feb 1975 - Japan Airlines - 3 - 30 September 1965 - 1973 - Sabena - 2 - 1 December 1965 - Feb 1973 - Eastern Airlines - 2 - 28 June 1966 - Feb 1973 - 2 extra options on 15 August 1966 2 other extra options on 28 April 1967 United Airlines - 6 - 29 June 1966 - 26 October 1972 - Braniff - 3 - 1 September 1966 - Feb 1973 - Lufthansa - 3 - 16 February 1967 - Apr 1973 - Air Canada - 4 - 1 March 1967 - 6 June 1972 - CAAC - 2 - 24 July 1972 - Dec 1979 - Iran Air - 2 - 8 October 1972 - Feb 1980 - Testing The design work was supported by a preceding research programme studying the flight characteristics of low ratio delta wings. A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was modified to carry the ogee planform, and, renamed as the BAC 221, used for flight tests of the high speed flight envelope, the Handley Page HP.115 also provided valuable information on low speed performance. Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aérospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by André Turcat, and first went supersonic on 1 October. The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw. Both prototypes were presented to the public for the first time on 7-8 June 1969 at the Paris Air Show. As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971, which was also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde. Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at the new Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport's opening. While Concorde had initially held a great deal of customer interest, the project was hit by a large number of order cancellations. The Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 had shocked potential buyers, and public concern over the environmental issues presented by a supersonic aircraft - the sonic boom, take-off noise and pollution - had produced a shift in public opinion of SSTs. By 1976 the remaining buyers were from four countries: Britain, France, China, and Iran. Only Air France and British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two governments taking a cut of any profits made. The United States government cut federal funding for the Boeing 2707, its rival supersonic transport programme, in 1971; Boeing did not complete its two 2707 prototypes. The US, India, and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde supersonic flights over the noise concern, although some of these restrictions were later relaxed. Professor Douglas Ross characterised restrictions placed upon Concorde operations by President Jimmy Carter's administration as having been an act of protectionism of American aircraft manufacturers. Programme cost The original programme cost estimate was £70 million before 1962, (£1.39 billion in 2021). The programme experienced huge cost overruns and delays, with the programme eventually costing between £1.5 and £2.1 billion in 1976, (£9.44 billion-13.2 billion in 2021). This extreme cost was the main reason the production run was much smaller than expected. The per-unit cost was impossible to recoup, so the French and British governments absorbed the development costs. Design General features Concorde is an ogival delta winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. It is one of the few commercial aircraft to employ a tailless design (the Tupolev Tu-144 being another). Concorde was the first airliner to have a (in this case, analogue) fly-by-wire flight-control system; the avionics system Concorde used was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits. The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy. Concorde pioneered the following technologies: For high speed and optimisation of flight: Double delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings Variable engine air intake ramp system controlled by digital computers Supercruise capability Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today's FADEC-controlled engines Droop nose for better landing visibility For weight-saving and enhanced performance: Mach 2.02 (~2,154 km/h or 1,338 mph) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum and turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed) Fuel consumption at Mach 2 (2,120 km/h; 1,320 mph) and at altitude of 60,000 feet (18,000 m) was 4,800 US gallons per hour (18,000 L/h). Mainly aluminium construction using a high temperature alloy similar to that developed for aero-engine pistons. This material gave low weight and allowed conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium). Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climb out to landing. Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems. High-pressure hydraulic system using 28 MPa (4,100 psi) for lighter hydraulic components, tripled independent systems ("Blue", "Green", and "Yellow") for redundancy, with an emergency ram air turbine (RAT) stored in the port-inner elevon jack fairing supplying "Green" and "Yellow" as backup. Complex air data computer (ADC) for the automated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip). Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system. Pitch trim by shifting fuel fore-and-aft for centre-of-gravity (CoG) control at the approach to Mach 1 and above with no drag penalty. Pitch trimming by fuel transfer had been used since 1958 on the B-58 supersonic bomber. Parts made using "sculpture milling", reducing the part count while saving weight and adding strength. No auxiliary power unit, as Concorde would only visit large airports where ground air start carts are available. Powerplant A symposium titled "Supersonic-Transport Implications" was hosted by the Royal Aeronautical Society on 8 December 1960. Various views were put forward on the likely type of powerplant for a supersonic transport, such as podded or buried installation and turbojet or ducted-fan engines. Boundary layer management in the podded installation was put forward as simpler with only an inlet cone but Dr. Seddon of the RAE saw "a future in a more sophisticated integration of shapes" in a buried installation. Another concern highlighted the case with two or more engines situated behind a single intake. An intake failure could lead to a double or triple engine failure. The advantage of the ducted fan over the turbojet was reduced airport noise but with considerable economic penalties with its larger cross-section producing excessive drag. At that time it was considered that the noise from a turbojet optimised for supersonic cruise could be reduced to an acceptable level using noise suppressors as used on subsonic jets. The powerplant configuration selected for Concorde, and its development to a certificated design, can be seen in light of the above symposium topics (which highlighted airfield noise, boundary layer management and interactions between adjacent engines) and the requirement that the powerplant, at Mach 2, tolerate combinations of pushovers, sideslips, pull-ups and throttle slamming without surging. Extensive development testing with design changes and changes to intake and engine control laws would address most of the issues except airfield noise and the interaction between adjacent powerplants at speeds above Mach 1.6 which meant Concorde "had to be certified aerodynamically as a twin-engined aircraft above Mach 1.6". Rolls-Royce had a design proposal, the RB.169, for the aircraft at the time of Concorde's initial design but "to develop a brand-new engine for Concorde would have been prohibitively expensive" so an existing engine, already flying in the supersonic BAC TSR-2 strike bomber prototype, was chosen. It was the BSEL Olympus Mk 320 turbojet, a development of the Bristol engine first used for the subsonic Avro Vulcan bomber. Great confidence was placed in being able to reduce the noise of a turbojet and massive strides by SNECMA in silencer design were reported during the programme. However, by 1974 the spade silencers which projected into the exhaust were reported to be ineffective but "entry-into-service aircraft are likely to meet their noise guarantees". The Olympus Mk.622 with reduced jet velocity was proposed to reduce the noise but it was not developed. Situated behind the leading edge of the wing, the engine intake had wing boundary layer ahead of it. Two-thirds was diverted and the remaining third which entered the intake did not adversely affect the intake efficiency except during pushovers when the boundary layer thickened ahead of the intake and caused surging. Extensive wind tunnel testing helped define leading edge modifications ahead of the intakes which solved the problem. Each engine had its own intake and the engine nacelles were paired with a splitter plate between them to minimise adverse behaviour of one powerplant influencing the other. Only above Mach 1.6 (1,960 km/h; 1,220 mph) was an engine surge likely to affect the adjacent engine. Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency from the powerplant. Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag. Olympus turbojet technology was available to be developed to meet the design requirements of the aircraft, although turbofans would be studied for any future SST. The aircraft used reheat (afterburners) only at take-off and to pass through the upper transonic regime to supersonic speeds, between Mach 0.95 and 1.7. Reheat was switched off at all other times. Due to jet engines being highly inefficient at low speeds, Concorde burned two tonnes (4,400 lb) of fuel (almost 2% of the maximum fuel load) taxiing to the runway. Fuel used is Jet A-1. Due to the high thrust produced even with the engines at idle, only the two outer engines were run after landing for easier taxiing and less brake pad wear - at low weights after landing, the aircraft would not remain stationary with all four engines idling requiring the brakes to be continuously applied to prevent the aircraft from rolling. The air intake design for Concorde's engines was especially critical. The intakes had to slow down supersonic inlet air to subsonic speeds with high pressure recovery to ensure efficient operation at cruising speed while providing low distortion levels (to prevent engine surge) and maintaining high efficiency for all likely ambient temperatures to be met in cruise. They had to provide adequate subsonic performance for diversion cruise and low engine-face distortion at take-off. They also had to provide an alternative path for excess intake air during engine throttling or shutdowns. The variable intake features required to meet all these requirements consisted of front and rear ramps, a dump door, an auxiliary inlet and a ramp bleed to the exhaust nozzle. As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle. The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable exit area and secondary flow from the intake, contributed to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise. Concorde's Air Intake Control Units (AICUs) made use of a digital processor to provide the necessary accuracy for intake control. It was the world's first use of a digital processor to be given full authority control of an essential system in a passenger aircraft. It was developed by the Electronics and Space Systems (ESS) division of the British Aircraft Corporation after it became clear that the analogue AICUs fitted to the prototype aircraft and developed by Ultra Electronics were found to be insufficiently accurate for the tasks in hand. Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it theoretically could have caused a catastrophic failure of the airframe. Although computer simulations predicted considerable problems, in practice Concorde could shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without the predicted difficulties. During an engine failure the required air intake is virtually zero. So, on Concorde, engine failure was countered by the opening of the auxiliary spill door and the full extension of the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and minimising drag. Concorde pilots were routinely trained to handle double engine failure. Concorde's thrust-by-wire engine control system was developed by Ultra Electronics. Heating problems Air compression on the outer surfaces caused the cabin to heat up during flight. Every surface, such as windows and panels, was warm to the touch by the end of the flight. Besides engines, the hottest part of the structure of any supersonic aircraft is the nose, due to aerodynamic heating. The engineers used Hiduminium R.R. 58, an aluminium alloy, throughout the aircraft because of its familiarity, cost and ease of construction. The highest temperature that aluminium could sustain over the life of the aircraft was 127 °C (261 °F), which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02. Concorde went through two cycles of heating and cooling during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude, then heating up after going supersonic. The reverse happened when descending and slowing down. This had to be factored into the metallurgical and fatigue modelling. A test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing. The Concorde airframe was designed for a life of 45,000 flying hours. Owing to air compression in front of the plane as it travelled at supersonic speed, the fuselage heated up and expanded by as much as 300 mm (12 in). The most obvious manifestation of this was a gap that opened up on the flight deck between the flight engineer's console and the bulkhead. On some aircraft that conducted a retiring supersonic flight, the flight engineers placed their caps in this expanded gap, wedging the cap when the airframe shrank again. To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a heat sink for the heat from the air conditioning. The same method also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight the surfaces forward from the cockpit became heated, and a visor was used to deflect much of this heat from directly reaching the cockpit. Concorde had livery restrictions; the majority of the surface had to be covered with a highly reflective white paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heating effects from supersonic flight at Mach 2. The white finish reduced the skin temperature by 6 to 11 °C (11 to 20 °F). In 1996, Air France briefly painted F-BTSD in a predominantly blue livery, with the exception of the wings, in a promotional deal with Pepsi. In this paint scheme, Air France was advised to remain at Mach 2 (2,120 km/h; 1,320 mph) for no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was used because it was not scheduled for any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations. Structural issues Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the aircraft during banks and turns, and caused twisting and distortion of the aircraft's structure. In addition there were concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by active ratio changes between the inboard and outboard elevons, varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, which are attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were active at high speed. Additionally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed. This was visible from the rear passengers' viewpoints. When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that particular airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch down moment on the aircraft if the centre of gravity remains where it was. The engineers designed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift, but there was still a shift of about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). This could have been countered by the use of trim controls, but at such high speeds this would have dramatically increased drag. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of gravity, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control. Range To fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde required the greatest supersonic range of any aircraft. This was achieved by a combination of engines which were highly efficient at supersonic speeds, a slender fuselage with high fineness ratio, and a complex wing shape for a high lift-to-drag ratio. This also required carrying only a modest payload and a high fuel capacity, and the aircraft was trimmed with precision to avoid unnecessary drag. Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Concorde "B" model was designed with slightly larger fuel capacity and slightly larger wings with leading edge slats to improve aerodynamic performance at all speeds, with the objective of expanding the range to reach markets in new regions. It featured more powerful engines with sound deadening and without the fuel-hungry and noisy afterburner. It was speculated that it was reasonably possible to create an engine with up to 25% gain in efficiency over the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593. This would have given 500 mi (805 km) additional range and a greater payload, making new commercial routes possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales of Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in the 1970s. Radiation concerns Concorde's high cruising altitude meant people onboard received almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising radiation as those travelling on a conventional long-haul flight. Upon Concorde's introduction, it was speculated that this exposure during supersonic travels would increase the likelihood of skin cancer. Due to the proportionally reduced flight time, the overall equivalent dose would normally be less than a conventional flight over the same distance. Unusual solar activity might lead to an increase in incident radiation. To prevent incidents of excessive radiation exposure, the flight deck had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate of increase or decrease of radiation. If the radiation level became too high, Concorde would descend below 47,000 feet (14,000 m). Cabin pressurisation Airliner cabins were usually maintained at a pressure equivalent to 6,000-8,000 feet (1,800-2,400 m) elevation. Concorde's pressurisation was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, 6,000 feet (1,800 m). Concorde's maximum cruising altitude was 60,000 feet (18,000 m); subsonic airliners typically cruise below 44,000 feet (13,000 m). A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew. Above 50,000 feet (15,000 m), a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a "time of useful consciousness" up to 10-15 seconds for a conditioned athlete. At Concorde's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger jets would not be effective and passengers would soon suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach, a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and noting Concorde's higher operating altitude, concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be a rapid descent. Continuous positive airway pressure would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the pilots through masks. Flight characteristics While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from Paris to New York (seven hours from New York to Paris), the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruising altitude of 18,300 metres (60,000 ft) and an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02 (2,150 km/h; 1,330 mph), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about 56,000 ft (17,000 m), Concorde had exclusive use of dedicated oceanic airways, or "tracks", separate from the North Atlantic Tracks, the routes used by other aircraft to cross the Atlantic. Due to the significantly less variable nature of high altitude winds compared to those at standard cruising altitudes, these dedicated SST tracks had fixed co-ordinates, unlike the standard routes at lower altitudes, whose co-ordinates are replotted twice daily based on forecast weather patterns (jetstreams). Concorde would also be cleared in a 15,000-foot (4,570 m) block, allowing for a slow climb from 45,000 to 60,000 ft (14,000 to 18,000 m) during the oceanic crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased. In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise-climb flight profile following take-off. The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was 170 miles per hour (274 km/h). Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the "back side" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload. The only thing that tells you that you're moving is that occasionally when you're flying over the subsonic aeroplanes you can see all these 747s 20,000 feet below you almost appearing to go backwards, I mean you are going 800 miles an hour or thereabouts faster than they are. The aeroplane was an absolute delight to fly, it handled beautifully. And remember we are talking about an aeroplane that was being designed in the late 1950s - mid 1960s. I think it's absolutely amazing and here we are, now in the 21st century, and it remains unique. - John Hutchinson, Concorde Captain, "The World's Greatest Airliner" (2003) Brakes and undercarriage Because of the way Concorde's delta-wing generated lift, the undercarriage had to be unusually strong and tall to allow for the angle of attack at low speed. At rotation, Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack, about 18 degrees. Prior to rotation the wing generated almost no lift, unlike typical aircraft wings. Combined with the high airspeed at rotation (199 knots or 369 kilometres per hour or 229 miles per hour indicated airspeed), this increased the stresses on the main undercarriage in a way that was initially unexpected during the development and required a major redesign. Due to the high angle needed at rotation, a small set of wheels was added aft to prevent tailstrikes. The main undercarriage units swing towards each other to be stowed but due to their great height also needed to contract in length telescopically before swinging to clear each other when stowed. The four main wheel tyres on each bogie unit are inflated to 232 psi (1,600 kPa). The twin-wheel nose undercarriage retracts forwards and its tyres are inflated to a pressure of 191 psi (1,320 kPa), and the wheel assembly carries a spray deflector to prevent standing water being thrown up into the engine intakes. The tyres are rated to a maximum speed on the runway of 250 mph (400 km/h). The starboard nose wheel carries a single disc brake to halt wheel rotation during retraction of the undercarriage. The port nose wheel carries speed generators for the anti-skid braking system which prevents brake activation until nose and main wheels rotate at the same rate. Additionally, due to the high average take-off speed of 250 miles per hour (400 km/h), Concorde needed upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has anti-skid braking - a system which prevents the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied for greater control during roll-out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner. The use of carbon over equivalent steel brakes provided a weight-saving of 1,200 lb (540 kg). Each wheel has multiple discs which are cooled by electric fans. Wheel sensors include brake overload, brake temperature, and tyre deflation. After a typical landing at Heathrow, brake temperatures were around 300-400 °C (570-750 °F). Landing Concorde required a minimum of 6,000 feet (1,800 m) runway length, this in fact being considerably less than the shortest runway Concorde ever actually landed on carrying commercial passengers, that of Cardiff Airport. Concorde G-AXDN (101), however, made its final landing at Duxford Aerodrome on the 20th August 1977, which had a runway length of just 6,000 feet (1,800 m) at the time. This was the final aircraft to land at Duxford before the runway was shortened later that year. Droop nose Concorde's drooping nose, developed by Marshall's of Cambridge, enabled the aircraft to switch from being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency during flight, to not obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the ability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining. A controller in the cockpit allowed the visor to be retracted and the nose to be lowered to 5° below the standard horizontal position for taxiing and take-off. Following take-off and after clearing the airport, the nose and visor were raised. Prior to landing, the visor was again retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5° below horizontal for maximal visibility. Upon landing the nose was raised to the 5° position to avoid the possibility of damage due to collision with ground vehicles, and then raised fully before engine shutdown to prevent pooling of internal condensation within the radome seeping down into the aircraft's pitot/ADC system probes. The US Federal Aviation Administration had objected to the restrictive visibility of the visor used on the first two prototype Concordes, which had been designed before a suitable high-temperature window glass had become available, and thus requiring alteration before the FAA would permit Concorde to serve US airports. This led to the redesigned visor used on the production and the four pre-production aircraft (101, 102, 201, and 202). The nose window and visor glass, needed to endure temperatures in excess of 100 °C (210 °F) at supersonic flight, were developed by Triplex. Operational history 1973 Solar Eclipse Mission Concorde 001 was modified with rooftop portholes for use on the 1973 Solar Eclipse mission and equipped with observation instruments. It performed the longest observation of a solar eclipse to date, about 74 minutes. Scheduled flights Scheduled flights began on 21 January 1976 on the London-Bahrain and Paris-Rio de Janeiro (via Dakar) routes, with BA flights using the Speedbird Concorde call sign to notify air traffic control of the aircraft's unique abilities and restrictions, but the French using their normal call signs. The Paris-Caracas route (via Azores) began on 10 April. The US Congress had just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over sonic booms, preventing launch on the coveted North Atlantic routes. The US Secretary of Transportation, William Coleman, gave permission for Concorde service to Washington Dulles International Airport, and Air France and British Airways simultaneously began a thrice-weekly service to Dulles on 24 May 1976. Due to low demand, Air France cancelled its Washington service in October 1982, while British Airways cancelled it in November 1994. When the US ban on JFK Concorde operations was lifted in February 1977, New York banned Concorde locally. The ban came to an end on 17 October 1977 when the Supreme Court of the United States declined to overturn a lower court's ruling rejecting efforts by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and a grass-roots campaign led by Carol Berman to continue the ban. In spite of complaints about noise, the noise report noted that Air Force One, at the time a Boeing VC-137, was louder than Concorde at subsonic speeds and during take-off and landing. Scheduled service from Paris and London to New York's John F. Kennedy Airport began on 22 November 1977. In December 1977, British Airways and Singapore Airlines started sharing a Concorde for flights between London and Singapore International Airport at Paya Lebar via Bahrain. The aircraft, BA's Concorde G-BOAD, was painted in Singapore Airlines livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard side. The service was discontinued after three return flights because of noise complaints from the Malaysian government; it could only be reinstated on a new route bypassing Malaysian airspace in 1979. A dispute with India prevented Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable and discontinued in 1980. During the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew Concorde twice weekly to Mexico City's Benito Juárez International Airport via Washington, DC, or New York City, from September 1978 to November 1982. The worldwide economic crisis during that period resulted in this route's cancellation; the last flights were almost empty. The routing between Washington or New York and Mexico City included a deceleration, from Mach 2.02 to Mach 0.95, to cross Florida subsonically and avoid creating a sonic boom over the state; Concorde then re-accelerated back to high speed while crossing the Gulf of Mexico. On 1 April 1989, on an around-the-world luxury tour charter, British Airways implemented changes to this routing that allowed G-BOAF to maintain Mach 2.02 by passing around Florida to the east and south. Periodically Concorde visited the region on similar chartered flights to Mexico City and Acapulco. From December 1978 to May 1980, Braniff International Airways leased 11 Concordes, five from Air France and six from British Airways. These were used on subsonic flights between Dallas-Fort Worth and Washington Dulles International Airport, flown by Braniff flight crews. Air France and British Airways crews then took over for the continuing supersonic flights to London and Paris. The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries; the European registration was covered while being operated by Braniff, retaining full AF/BA liveries. The flights were not profitable and typically less than 50% booked, forcing Braniff to end its tenure as the only US Concorde operator in May 1980. In its early years, the British Airways Concorde service had a greater number of "no shows" (passengers who booked a flight and then failed to appear at the gate for boarding) than any other aircraft in the fleet. British Caledonian interest Following the launch of British Airways Concorde services, Britain's other major airline, British Caledonian (BCal), set up a task force headed by Gordon Davidson, BA's former Concorde director, to investigate the possibility of their own Concorde operations. This was seen as particularly viable for the airline's long-haul network as there were two unsold aircraft then available for purchase. One important reason for BCal's interest in Concorde was that the British Government's 1976 aviation policy review had opened the possibility of BA setting up supersonic services in competition with BCal's established sphere of influence. To counteract this potential threat, BCal considered their own independent Concorde plans, as well as a partnership with BA. BCal were considered most likely to have set up a Concorde service on the Gatwick-Lagos route, a major source of revenue and profits within BCal's scheduled route network; BCal's Concorde task force did assess the viability of a daily supersonic service complementing the existing subsonic widebody service on this route. BCal entered into a bid to acquire at least one Concorde. However, BCal eventually arranged for two aircraft to be leased from BA and Aérospatiale respectively, to be maintained by either BA or Air France. BCal's envisaged two-Concorde fleet would have required a high level of aircraft usage to be cost-effective; therefore, BCal had decided to operate the second aircraft on a supersonic service between Gatwick and Atlanta, with a stopover at either Gander or Halifax. Consideration was given to services to Houston and various points on its South American network at a later stage. Both supersonic services were to be launched at some point during 1980; however, steeply rising oil prices caused by the 1979 energy crisis led to BCal shelving their supersonic ambitions. British Airways buys its Concordes outright By around 1981 in the UK, the future for Concorde looked bleak. The British government had lost money operating Concorde every year, and moves were afoot to cancel the service entirely. A cost projection came back with greatly reduced metallurgical testing costs because the test rig for the wings had built up enough data to last for 30 years and could be shut down. Despite this, the government was not keen to continue. In 1983, BA's managing director, Sir John King, convinced the government to sell the aircraft outright to the then state-owned British Airways for £16.5 million plus the first year's profits. In 2003, Lord Heseltine, who was the Minister responsible at the time, revealed to Alan Robb on BBC Radio 5 Live, that the aircraft had been sold for "next to nothing". Asked by Robb if it was the worst deal ever negotiated by a government minister, he replied "That is probably right. But if you have your hands tied behind your back and no cards and a very skillful negotiator on the other side of the table... I defy you to do any [better]." British Airways was subsequently privatised in 1987. Operating economics In 1983, Pan American accused the British Government of subsidising British Airways Concorde air fares, on which a return London-New York was £2,399 (£8,612 in 2021 prices), compared to £1,986 (£7,129) with a subsonic first class return, and London-Washington return was £2,426 (£8,709) instead of £2,258 (£8,106) subsonic. Research revealed that passengers thought that the fare was higher than it actually was, so the airline raised ticket prices to match these perceptions. It is reported that British Airways then ran Concorde at a profit. Its estimated operating costs were $3,800 per block hour in 1972 (equivalent to $24,617 in 2021), compared to actual 1971 operating costs of $1,835 for a 707 and $3,500 for a 747 (equivalent to $12,278 and $23,419, respectively); for a 3,050 nmi (5,650 km) London-New York sector, a 707 cost $13,750 or 3.04¢ per seat/nmi (in 1971 dollars), a 747 $26,200 or 2.4¢ per seat/nmi and Concorde $14,250 or 4.5¢ per seat/nmi. Concorde's unit cost was then $33.8 million ($162 million in 2020 dollars). The speed and premium service were costly: in 1997, the round-trip ticket price from New York to London was $7,995 (equivalent to $13,500 in 2021), more than 30 times the cost of the least expensive scheduled flight for this route. British Airways and Air France were able to operate Concorde at a profit after purchasing their aircraft from their respective governments at a steep discount in comparison to the programme's development and procurement costs. Other services Between March 1984 and January 1991, British Airways flew a thrice-weekly Concorde service between London and Miami, stopping at Washington Dulles International Airport. Until 2003, Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. From 1987 to 2003 British Airways flew a Saturday morning Concorde service to Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados, during the summer and winter holiday season. Prior to the Air France Paris crash, several UK and French tour operators operated charter flights to European destinations on a regular basis; the charter business was viewed as lucrative by British Airways and Air France. In 1997, British Airways held a promotional contest to mark the 10th anniversary of the airline's move into the private sector. The promotion was a lottery to fly to New York held for 190 tickets valued at £5,400 each, to be offered at £10. Contestants had to call a special hotline to compete with up to 20 million people. Retirement On 10 April 2003, Air France and British Airways simultaneously announced they would retire Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, the slump in air travel following the September 11 attacks, and rising maintenance costs: Airbus, the company that acquired Aerospatiale in 2000, had made a decision in 2003 to no longer supply replacement parts for the aircraft. Although Concorde was technologically advanced when introduced in the 1970s, 30 years later, its analogue cockpit was outdated. There had been little commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde due to a lack of competing aircraft, unlike other airliners of the same era such as the Boeing 747. By its retirement, it was the last aircraft in the British Airways fleet that had a flight engineer; other aircraft, such as the modernised 747-400, had eliminated the role. On 11 April 2003, Virgin Atlantic founder Sir Richard Branson announced that the company was interested in purchasing British Airways' Concorde fleet "for the same price that they were given them for - one pound". British Airways dismissed the idea, prompting Virgin to increase their offer to £1 million each. Branson claimed that when BA was privatised, a clause in the agreement required them to allow another British airline to operate Concorde if BA ceased to do so, but the Government denied the existence of such a clause. In October 2003, Branson wrote in The Economist that his final offer was "over £5 million" and that he had intended to operate the fleet "for many years to come". The chances for keeping Concorde in service were stifled by Airbus's lack of support for continued maintenance. It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn for the reasons usually given but that it became apparent during the grounding of Concorde that the airlines could make more profit carrying first-class passengers subsonically. A lack of commitment to Concorde from Director of Engineering Alan MacDonald was cited as having undermined BA's resolve to continue operating Concorde. Other reasons why the attempted revival of Concorde never happened relate to the fact that the narrow fuselage did not allow for "luxury" features of subsonic air travel such as moving space, reclining seats and overall comfort. In the words of The Guardian's Dave Hall, "Concorde was an outdated notion of prestige that left sheer speed the only luxury of supersonic travel." The general downturn in the commercial aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the end of maintenance support for Concorde by Airbus, the successor to Aérospatiale, contributed to the aircraft's retirement. Air France Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May 2003. Air France's final Concorde flight took place on 27 June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to Toulouse. An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at Christie's in Paris on 15 November 2003; 1,300 people attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values. French Concorde F-BVFC was retired to Toulouse and kept functional for a short time after the end of service, in case taxi runs were required in support of the French judicial enquiry into the 2000 crash. The aircraft is now fully retired and no longer functional. French Concorde F-BTSD has been retired to the "Musée de l'Air" at Paris-Le Bourget Airport near Paris; unlike the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are being kept functional. For instance, the famous "droop nose" can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours that they could be prepared for future flights for special occasions. French Concorde F-BVFB is at the Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim at Sinsheim, Germany, after its last flight from Paris to Baden-Baden, followed by a spectacular transport to Sinsheim via barge and road. The museum also has a Tupolev Tu-144 on display - this is the only place where both supersonic airliners can be seen together. In 1989, Air France signed a letter of agreement to donate a Concorde to the National Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. upon the aircraft's retirement. On 12 June 2003, Air France honoured that agreement, donating Concorde F-BVFA (serial 205) to the Museum upon the completion of its last flight. This aircraft was the first Air France Concorde to open service to Rio de Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and New York and had flown 17,824 hours. It is on display at the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center at Dulles Airport. British Airways BA Concorde G-BOAB at London Heathrow Airport. This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and its final flight in 2000, and has remained there ever since. British Airways conducted a North American farewell tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto Pearson International Airport on 1 October, after which it flew to New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport. G-BOAD visited Boston's Logan International Airport on 8 October, and G-BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October. In a week of farewell flights around the United Kingdom, Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October, Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October, Cardiff on 23 October, and Edinburgh on 24 October. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into Heathrow to the cities, often overflying them at low altitude. On 22 October, both Concorde flight BA9021C, a special from Manchester, and BA002 from New York landed simultaneously on both of Heathrow's runways. On 23 October 2003, the Queen consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle, an honour reserved for state events and visiting dignitaries, as Concorde's last west-bound commercial flight departed London. British Airways retired its Concorde fleet on 24 October 2003. G-BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar to that given for Air France's F-BTSD, while two more made round trips, G-BOAF over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including former Concorde pilots, and G-BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The captain of the New York to London flight was Mike Bannister. The final flight of a Concorde in the US occurred on 5 November 2003 when G-BOAG flew from New York's JFK Airport to Seattle's Boeing Field to join the Museum of Flight's permanent collection. The plane was piloted by Mike Bannister and Les Broadie, who claimed a flight time of three hours, 55 minutes and 12 seconds, a record between the two cities that was made possible by Canada granting use of a supersonic corridor between Chibougamau, Quebec, and Peace River, Alberta. The museum had been pursuing a Concorde for their collection since 1984. The final flight of a Concorde worldwide took place on 26 November 2003 with a landing at Filton, Bristol, UK. All of BA's Concorde fleet have been grounded, drained of hydraulic fluid and their airworthiness certificates withdrawn. Jock Lowe, ex-chief Concorde pilot and manager of the fleet, estimated in 2004 that it would cost £10-15 million to make G-BOAF airworthy again. BA maintain ownership and have stated that they will not fly again due to a lack of support from Airbus. On 1 December 2003, Bonhams held an auction of British Airways Concorde artefacts, including a nose cone, at Kensington Olympia in London. Proceeds of around £750,000 were raised, with the majority going to charity. G-BOAD is currently on display at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York. In 2007, BA announced that the advertising spot at Heathrow where a 40% scale model of Concorde was located would not be retained; the model is now on display at the Brooklands Museum, in Surrey, England. Displays and restoration Concorde G-BBDG was used for test flying and trials work. It was retired in 1981 and then only used for spares. It was dismantled and transported by road from Filton to the Brooklands Museum, where it was restored from essentially a shell. It remains open to visitors to the museum, and wears the original Negus & Negus livery worn by the Concorde fleet during their initial years of service with BA. Concorde G-BOAB, call sign Alpha Bravo, was never modified and returned to service with the rest of British Airways' fleet, and has remained at London Heathrow Airport since its final flight, a ferry flight from JFK in 2000. Although the aircraft was effectively retired, G-BOAB was used as a test aircraft for the Project Rocket interiors that were in the process of being added to the rest of BA's fleet. G-BOAB has been towed around Heathrow on various occasions; it currently occupies a space on the airport's apron and is regularly visible to aircraft moving around the airport. One of the youngest Concordes (F-BTSD) is on display at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris. In February 2010, it was announced that the museum and a group of volunteer Air France technicians intend to restore F-BTSD so it can taxi under its own power. In May 2010, it was reported that the British Save Concorde Group and French Olympus 593 groups had begun inspecting the engines of a Concorde at the French museum; their intent was to restore the airliner to a condition where it could fly in demonstrations. G-BOAF forms the centrepiece of the Aerospace Bristol museum at Filton, which opened to the public in 2017. G-BOAD, the aircraft that holds the record for the Heathrow - JFK crossing at 2 hours, 52 minutes, and 59 seconds, is on display at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York. Operators Air France British Airways Braniff International Airways operated Concordes between Washington/Dulles and Dallas/Ft. Worth international airports, utilizing its own flight and cabin crew, under its own insurance and operator's license. Stickers containing a US registration were placed over the French and British registrations of the aircraft during each rotation, and a placard was temporarily placed behind the cockpit to signify the operator and operator's license in command. Singapore Airlines had its livery placed on the left side of Concorde G-BOAD, and held a joint marketing agreement which saw Singapore insignias on the cabin fittings, as well as the airline's "Singapore Girl" stewardesses jointly sharing cabin duty with British Airways flight attendants. All flight crew, operations, and insurances remained solely under British Airways however, and at no point did Singapore Airlines operate Concorde services under its own operator's certification, nor wet-lease an aircraft. This arrangement initially only lasted for three flights, conducted between 9-13 December 1977; it later resumed on 24 January 1979, and operated through 1 November 1980. The Singapore livery was used on G-BOAD from 1977 to 1980. Accidents and incidents Air France Flight 4590 On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-BTSC, crashed in Gonesse, France, after departing from Charles de Gaulle Airport en route to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, killing all 100 passengers and nine crew members on board as well as four people on the ground. It was the only fatal accident involving Concorde. This crash also damaged Concorde's reputation and caused both British Airways and Air France to temporarily ground their fleets until modifications that involved strengthening the affected areas of the aircraft had been made. According to the official investigation conducted by the Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA), the crash was caused by a metallic strip that had fallen from a Continental Airlines DC-10 that had taken off minutes earlier. This fragment punctured a tyre on Concorde's left main wheel bogie during take-off. The tyre exploded, and a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank, which caused a fuel leak and led to a fire. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning, and with engine number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain altitude or speed. The aircraft entered a rapid pitch-up then a sudden descent, rolling left and crashing tail-low into the Hôtelissimo Les Relais Bleus Hotel in Gonesse. The claim that a metallic strip caused the crash was disputed during the trial both by witnesses (including the pilot of then French President Jacques Chirac's aircraft that had just landed on an adjacent runway when Flight 4590 caught fire) and by an independent French TV investigation that found a wheel spacer had not been installed in the left-side main gear and that the plane caught fire some 1,000 feet from where the metallic strip lay. British investigators and former French Concorde pilots looked at several other possibilities that the BEA report ignored, including an unbalanced weight distribution in the fuel tanks and loose landing gear. They came to the conclusion that the Concorde veered off course on the runway, which reduced takeoff speed below the crucial minimum. John Hutchinson, who had served as a Concorde captain for 15 years with British Airways, said "the fire on its own should have been 'eminently survivable; the pilot should have been able to fly his way out of trouble'", had it not been for a "lethal combination of operational error and 'negligence' by the maintenance department of Air France" that "nobody wants to talk about". On 6 December 2010, Continental Airlines and John Taylor, a mechanic who installed the metal strip, were found guilty of involuntary manslaughter; however, on 30 November 2012, a French court overturned the conviction, saying mistakes by Continental and Taylor did not make them criminally responsible. Before the accident, Concorde had been arguably the safest operational passenger airliner in the world with zero passenger deaths-per-kilometres travelled; but there had been two prior non-fatal accidents and a rate of tyre damage some 30 times higher than subsonic airliners from 1995 to 2000. Safety improvements were made in the wake of the crash, including more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining on the fuel tanks and specially developed burst-resistant tyres. The first flight with the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister. During the 3-hour 20-minute flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02 and 60,000 ft (18,000 m) before returning to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, intended to resemble the London-New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations. The first flight with passengers after the 2000 grounding for safety modifications landed shortly before the World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were BA employees. Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where Mayor Rudy Giuliani greeted the passengers. Other accidents and incidents Concorde had suffered two previous non-fatal accidents that were similar to each other. 12 April 1989: A Concorde of British registration, G-BOAF, on a chartered flight from Christchurch, New Zealand, to Sydney, suffered a structural failure in-flight at supersonic speed. As the aircraft was climbing and accelerating through Mach 1.7, a "thud" was heard. The crew did not notice any handling problems, and they assumed the thud they heard was a minor engine surge. No further difficulty was encountered until descent through 40,000 feet (12,000 m) at Mach 1.3, when a vibration was felt throughout the aircraft, lasting two to three minutes. Most of the upper rudder had become separated from the aircraft at this point. Aircraft handling was unaffected, and the aircraft made a safe landing at Sydney. The UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) concluded that the skin of the rudder had been separating from the rudder structure over a period of time before the accident due to moisture seepage past the rivets in the rudder. Furthermore, production staff had not followed proper procedures during an earlier modification of the rudder, but the procedures were difficult to adhere to. The aircraft was repaired and returned to service. 21 March 1992: A Concorde of British registration, G-BOAB, on a scheduled flight from London to New York, also suffered a structural failure in-flight at supersonic speed. While cruising at Mach 2, at approximately 53,000 feet (16,000 m) above mean sea level, the crew heard a "thump". No difficulties in handling were noticed, and no instruments gave any irregular indications. This crew also suspected there had been a minor engine surge. One hour later, during descent and while decelerating below Mach 1.4, a sudden "severe" vibration began throughout the aircraft. The vibration worsened when power was added to the No 2 engine, and it was attenuated when that engine's power was reduced. The crew shut down the No 2 engine and made a successful landing in New York, noting only that increased rudder control was needed to keep the aircraft on its intended approach course. Again, the skin had become separated from the structure of the rudder, which led to most of the upper rudder becoming separated in-flight. The AAIB concluded that repair materials had leaked into the structure of the rudder during a recent repair, weakening the bond between the skin and the structure of the rudder, leading to it breaking up in-flight. The large size of the repair had made it difficult to keep repair materials out of the structure, and prior to this accident, the severity of the effect of these repair materials on the structure and skin of the rudder was not appreciated. The 2010 trial involving Continental Airlines over the crash of Flight 4590 established that from 1976 until Flight 4590 there had been 57 tyre failures involving Concordes during takeoffs, including a near-crash at Dulles Airport on 14 June 1979 involving Air France Flight 54 where a tyre blowout pierced the plane's fuel tank and damaged the port-side engine and electrical cables, with the loss of two of the craft's hydraulic systems. Aircraft on display Of the 20 aircraft built, 18 remain in good condition. List of aircraft accessible to the public: Registration - Livery - Location G-AXDN - British Airways - Duxford, England G-BBDG - British Airways - Weybridge, England G-BOAA - British Airways - East Fortune, Scotland G-BOAB - British Airways - Heathrow, England G-BOAC - British Airways - Manchester, England G-BOAD - British Airways - New York City, USA G-BOAE - British Airways - Charnocks, Barbados G-BOAF - British Airways - Filton, England G-BOAG - British Airways - Seattle, USA G-BSST - British Aircraft Corporation - Yeovilton, England F-BTSD - Air France - Le Bourget, France F-BVFA - Air France - Chantilly, Virginia, USA F-BVFB - Air France - Sinsheim, Germany F-BVFC - Air France - Blagnac, France F-BVFF - Air France - Roissy-en-France, France F-WTSA - Air France - Athis-Mons, France F-WTSB - Air France - Blagnac, France Comparable aircraft Tu-144 Concorde is one of only two supersonic jetliner models to operate commercially; the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which operated in the late 1970s. The Tu-144 was nicknamed "Concordski" by Western European journalists for its outward similarity to Concorde. It had been alleged that Soviet espionage efforts had resulted in the theft of Concorde blueprints, supposedly to assist in the design of the Tu-144. As a result of a rushed development programme, the first Tu-144 prototype was substantially different from the preproduction machines, but both were cruder than Concorde. The Tu-144S had a significantly shorter range than Concorde. Jean Rech, Sud Aviation, attributed this to two things, a very heavy powerplant with an intake twice as long as that on Concorde, and low-bypass turbofan engines with too-high a bypass ratio which needed afterburning for cruise. The aircraft had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler supersonic wing design. In addition the Tu-144 required braking parachutes to land while Concorde used anti-lock brakes. The Tu-144 had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show, and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May 1978. The later production Tu-144 versions were more refined and competitive. The Tu-144D had Kolesov RD-36-51 turbojet engines providing greater fuel efficiency, cruising speed and a maximum range of 6,500 km, near Concorde's maximum range of 6,667 km. Passenger service commenced in November 1977, but after the 1978 crash the aircraft was taken out of passenger service after only 55 flights, which carried an average of 58 passengers. The Tu-144 had an inherently unsafe structural design as a consequence of an automated production method chosen to simplify and speed up manufacturing. The Tu-144 program was cancelled by the Soviet government on 1 July 1983. SST and others The American designs, the "SST" project (for Supersonic Transport) were the Boeing 2707 and the Lockheed L-2000. These were to have been larger, with seating for up to 300 people. Running a few years behind Concorde, the Boeing 2707 was redesigned to a cropped delta layout; the extra cost of these changes helped to kill the project. The operation of US military aircraft such as the Mach 3+ North American XB-70 Valkyrie prototypes and Convair B-58 Hustler strategic nuclear bomber had shown that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching the ground, and the experience from the Oklahoma City sonic boom tests led to the same environmental concerns that hindered the commercial success of Concorde. The American government cancelled its SST project in 1971, after having spent more than $1 billion. Impact Environmental Before Concorde's flight trials, developments in the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by governments and their respective electorates. Opposition to Concorde's noise, particularly on the east coast of the United States, forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social impact more seriously. Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F. Kennedy Airport, many found that Concorde was quieter than expected, partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas. Even before commercial flights started, it had been claimed that Concorde was quieter than many other aircraft. In 1971, BAC's technical director was quoted as saying, "It is certain on present evidence and calculations that in the airport context, production Concordes will be no worse than aircraft now in service and will in fact be better than many of them." Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. In 1995, David Fahey, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce a 2 percent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 percent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 percent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport. Concorde's technical leap forward boosted the public's understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment as well as awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such conflicts. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise. In the UK, the CPRE has issued tranquillity maps since 1990. Public perception Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts. The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde". In France it was known as "le Concorde" due to "le", the definite article, used in French grammar to introduce the name of a ship or aircraft, and the capital being used to distinguish a proper name from a common noun of the same spelling. In French, the common noun concorde means "agreement, harmony, or peace". Concorde's pilots and British Airways in official publications often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she" or "her". As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows. On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media coverage. In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type, Tube map, the World Wide Web, K2 telephone box and the Supermarine Spitfire. Special missions The heads of France and the United Kingdom flew in Concorde many times. Presidents Georges Pompidou, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and François Mitterrand regularly used Concorde as French flagman aircraft in foreign visits. Queen Elizabeth II and Prime Ministers Edward Heath, Jim Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair took Concorde in some charter flights such as the Queen's trips to Barbados on her Silver Jubilee in 1977, in 1987 and in 2003, to the Middle East in 1984 and to the United States in 1991. Pope John Paul II flew on Concorde in May 1989. Concorde sometimes made special flights for demonstrations, air shows (such as the Farnborough, Paris-LeBourget, Oshkosh AirVenture and MAKS air shows) as well as parades and celebrations (for example, of Zurich Airport's anniversary in 1998). The aircraft were also used for private charters (including by the President of Zaire Mobutu Sese Seko on multiple occasions), for advertising companies (including for the firm OKI), for Olympic torch relays (1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville) and for observing solar eclipses, including the solar eclipse of June 30, 1973 and again for the total solar eclipse on August 11, 1999. Records The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by the British Airways G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from take-off to touchdown aided by a 175 mph (282 km/h) tailwind. On 13 February 1985, a Concorde charter flight flew from London Heathrow to Sydney - on the opposite side of the world - in a time of 17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds, including refuelling stops. Concorde also set other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around the World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records. On 12-13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of Columbus' first New World landing, Concorde Spirit Tours (US) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, Bangkok, and Bahrain. The eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) under charter to Concorde Spirit Tours in the US on 15-16 August 1995. This promotional flight circumnavigated the world from New York/JFK International Airport in 31 hours 27 minutes 49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at Toulouse, Dubai, Bangkok, Andersen AFB in Guam, Honolulu, and Acapulco. By its 30th flight anniversary on 2 March 1999 Concorde had clocked up 920,000 flight hours, with more than 600,000 supersonic, many more than all of the other supersonic aircraft in the Western world combined. On its way to the Museum of Flight in November 2003, G-BOAG set a New York City-to-Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. Due to the restrictions on supersonic overflights within the US the flight was granted permission by the Canadian authorities for the majority of the journey to be flown supersonically over sparsely-populated Canadian territory. Specifications Data from The Wall Street Journal, The Concorde Story, The International Directory of Civil Aircraft, Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde 1969 onwards (all models) General characteristics Crew: 3 (2 pilots and 1 flight engineer) Capacity: 92-120 passengers (128 in high-density layout) Length: 202 ft 4 in (61.66 m) Wingspan: 84 ft 0 in (25.6 m) Height: 40 ft 0 in (12.2 m) Wing area: 3,856.2 sq ft (358.25 m2) Empty weight: 173,504 lb (78,700 kg) Gross weight: 245,000 lb (111,130 kg) Max takeoff weight: 408,010 lb (185,070 kg) Fuel capacity: 210,940 lb (95,680 kg) Fuselage internal length: 129 ft 0 in (39.32 m) Fuselage width: maximum of 9 ft 5 in (2.87 m) external, 8 ft 7 in (2.62 m) internal Fuselage height: maximum of 10 ft 10 in (3.30 m) external, 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) internal Maximum taxiing weight: 412,000 lb (187,000 kg) Powerplant: 4 × Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Mk 610 turbojets with reheat, 31,000 lbf (140 kN) thrust each dry, 38,050 lbf (169.3 kN) with afterburner Performance Maximum speed: 1,354 mph (2,179 km/h, 1,177 kn) Maximum speed: Mach 2.04 (temperature limited) Cruise speed: 1,341 mph (2,158 km/h, 1,165 kn) Range: 4,488.0 mi (7,222.8 km, 3,900.0 nmi) Service ceiling: 60,000 ft (18,300 m) Rate of climb: 3,300-4,900 ft/min (17-25 m/s) at sea level Lift-to-drag: Low speed - 3.94; Approach - 4.35; 250 kn, 10,000 ft - 9.27; Mach 0.94 - 11.47, Mach 2.04 - 7.14 Fuel consumption: 47 lb/mi (13.2 kg/km) Thrust/weight: 0.373 Maximum nose tip temperature: 127 °C (260 °F; 400 K) Runway requirement (with maximum load): 3,600 m (11,800 ft) Avionics Digital Air Intake Control Units Fly by wire flight controls Analogue electronic engine controls Triple inertial navigation units, one per flight crew Dual VHF omnidirectional range instruments Dual automatic direction finder instruments Dual distance measuring equipment instruments Dual instrument landing systems Automatic flight control system with dual autopilots, autothrottles, and flight directors: full autoland capability with visibility limits 250 m (820 ft) horizontally, 15 ft (4.6 m) decision height Ekco E390/564 weather radar Radio altimeters BAC 221 used for ogee delta wing research Barbara Harmer, the first qualified female Concorde pilot Aérospatiale C.22 Aérospatiale C.22 is a subsonic target drone developed and manufactured by Aérospatiale since 1980, and used in testing the MBDA Aster missile. It is powered by a Microturbo TRI 60-02. To ensure the tests of the Centre d'Essais de Landes in 1995, 74 targets including twenty C22, eleven Nord Aviation CT20 and twenty-seven Fox, were launched. It was last used in France in 2014. It is equipped with a towed target for the training of anti-aircraft gun crews and ground-to-air missile batteries. Specifications Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1982-83 General characteristics Crew: None Length: 5.25 m (17 ft 3 in) Wingspan: 2.50 m (8 ft 2 in) Height: 1.15 m (3 ft 9 in) Empty weight: 255 kg (562 lb) Max takeoff weight: 630 kg (1,389 lb) (maximum launching weight) Fuel capacity: 235 L (52 imp gal; 62 US gal) Powerplant: 1 × Microturbo TRI 60-2 turbojet, 3.4 kN (760 lbf) thrust Powerplant: 2 × jettisonable solid-fuel booster rockets , 28.3 kN (6,400 lbf) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: Mach <0.95 Endurance: 2 hr 30 min at 12,000 m (39,000 ft) Service ceiling: 14,000 m (46,000 ft) Time to altitude: 12,000 metres (39,000 ft) in less than 6 min |